An overview of the utilisation of microalgae biomass derived from nutrient recycling of wet market wastewater and slaughterhouse wastewater

Microalgae have high nutritional values for aquatic organisms compared to fish meal, because microalgae cells are rich in proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. However, the high cost for the commercial production of microalgae biomass using fresh water or artificial media limits its use as fish feed. Few studies have investigated the potential of wet market wastewater and slaughterhouse wastewater for the production of microalgae biomass. Hence, this study aims to highlight the potential of these types of wastewater as an alternative superior medium for microalgae biomass as they contain high levels of nutrients required for microalgae growth. This paper focuses on the benefits of microalgae biomass produced during the phycore-mediation of wet market wastewater and slaughterhouse wastewater as fish feed. The extraction techniques for lipids and proteins as well as the studies conducted on the use of microalgae biomass as fish feed were reviewed. The results showed that microalgae biomass can be used as fish feed due to feed utilisation efficiency, physiological activity, increased resistance for several diseases, improved stress response, and improved protein retention

Optimizing multiple beam interferometry in the surface forces apparatus: Novel optics, reflection mode modeling, metal layer thicknesses, birefringence, and rotation of anisotropic layers.

Multiple beam interferometry (MBI) evolved as a powerful tool for the simultaneous evaluation of thin film thicknesses and refractive indices in Surface Forces Apparatus (SFA) measurements. However, analysis has relied on simplifications for providing fast or simplified analysis of recorded interference spectra. Here, we describe the implementation of new optics and a generalized fitting approach to 4 × 4 transfer matrix method simulations for the SFA. Layers are described by dispersive complex refractive indices, thicknesses, and Euler angles that can be fitted, providing modeling for birefringent or colored layers. Normalization of data by incident light intensities is essential for the implementation of a fitting approach. Therefore, a modular optical system is described that can be retrofit to any existing SFA setup. Real-time normalization of spectra by white light is realized, alignment procedures are considerably simplified, and direct switching between transmission and reflection modes is possible. A numerical approach is introduced for constructing transfer matrices for birefringent materials. Full fitting of data to the simulation is implemented for arbitrary multilayered stacks used in SFA. This enables self-consistent fitting of mirror thicknesses, birefringence, and relative rotation of anisotropic layers (e.g., mica), evaluation of reflection and transmission mode spectra, and simultaneous fitting of thicknesses and refractive indices of media confined between two surfaces. In addition, a fast full spectral fitting method is implemented for providing a possible real-time analysis with up to 30 fps. We measure and analyze refractive indices of confined cyclohexane, the thickness of lipid bilayers, the thickness of metal layers, the relative rotation of birefringent materials, contact widths, as well as simultaneous fitting of both reflection and transmission mode spectra of typical interferometers. Our analyses suggest a number of best practices for conducting SFA and open MBI in an SFA for increasingly complex systems, including metamaterials, multilayered anisotropic layers, and chiral layers

Physico-chemical and techno-functional properties of proteins isolated from the green microalgae Tetraselmis sp.

In this thesis, the mild isolation of an algae soluble protein isolate (ASPI) and the characterisation of its techno-functional properties are described. The ASPI was isolated from the green microalgae Tetraselmis sp. by beadmilling and subsequent anion exchange adsorption. The isolate obtained contained 59 ± 7% (w/w) protein and 20 ± 6% (w/w) carbohydrates, the latter composed for approximately one fourth of uronic acids (4.8 ± 0.4% [w/w]). In the pH range 5.5 – 6.5, in which currently used legumin seed protein isolates (e.g. soy) show low solubility, ASPI retained high solubility independent of ionic strength. In the soluble pH range, the foam stability of ASPI is superior to the foam stabilities of whey protein isolate (WPI) and egg white albumin (EWA). At pH 7, ASPI stabilized foams are 1.7 times more stable than WPI stabilized foams. Further fractionation of APSI results in foams even 3 times more stable than WPI stabilized foams. In addition, emulsions stabilised with ASPI are stable against droplet aggregation around pH 5 at low ionic strength, while emulsions stabilised by WPI are not stable at this pH. The stability of ASPI emulsions at this pH is attributed to the co-adsorption of the charged polysaccharide fraction present in ASPI. The role of the charged polysaccharides on stabilisation of the emulsions was confirmed by fractionating ASPI into protein-rich and charged polysaccharide-rich fractions. The combination of charged polysaccharides and proteins in ASPI results in good techno-functional properties that are between that of pure proteins and that of the naturally occurring protein-polysaccharide hybrid gum arabic (GA). It is concluded that ASPI represents an attractive substitute for currently used high-value food protein isolates. Due to the combination of the positive interfacial properties of its protein fraction with the broad pH stability of its charged polysaccharide fraction, ASPI possesses the positive attributes of two types of techno-functional ingredients

Design and testing of drift free force probe experiments with absolute distance control

After almost 35 years of truly successful and transformative advancements, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and, in general, scanning probe microscopy still have a fundamental limitation. This is constant drift and uncontrolled motion of probe and tested surface structures with respect to each other. This is inherently linked to the currently accepted design principle-only forces are measured, and distances are inferred from force measurements and piezo motions. Here, we demonstrate and test a new setup, which combines advantages of AFM and the surface forces apparatus, where absolute distances are measured by Multiple Beam White Light Interferometry (MBI). The novel and unique aspect of this apparatus consists of a synergistic combination of white light interferometric measurement of the absolute distance by direct reflection from an AFM cantilever and a fast distance clamping and drift correction using an IR-laser Fabry-Pérot interferometry-based approach (FPI). We demonstrate the capabilities of the system by force/distance measurements, benchmarking of distance control by direct comparison of MBI and FPI, and discuss potential applications of the system. This novel setup has the potential to form, monitor, and stress a single molecule or ligand/receptor bond on the molecular hook with sub-nanometer control of molecular distances over in principle infinite times

Isolation and characterization of soluble protein from the green microalgae Tetraselmis sp.

Extraction of high-value protein fractions for techno-functional applications in foods can considerably increase the commercial value of microalgae biomass. Proteins from Tetraselmis sp. were extracted and purified after cell disintegration by bead milling, centrifugation, ion exchange chromatography using the absorbent Streamline DEAE, and final decolorization by precipitation at pH 3.5. The algae soluble isolate was free from the intense color typical for algae products and contained 64% (w/w) proteins and 24% (w/w) carbohydrates. The final isolate showed solubility independent of ionic strength and 100% solubility at and above pH 5.5. Since most plant proteins used in foods show poor solubility in the pH range 5.5–6.5, the algae soluble protein isolate could be useful for techno-functional applications in this pH range

Emulsion properties of algae soluble protein isolate from Tetraselmis sp.

To study possible applications of microalgae proteins in foods, a colourless, protein-rich fraction was isolated from Tetraselmis sp. In the present study the emulsion properties of this algae soluble protein isolate (ASPI) were investigated. Droplet size and droplet aggregation of ASPI stabilized oil-in-water emulsions were studied as function of isolate concentration (1.25–10.00 mg/mL), pH (3–7), and ionic strength (NaCl 10–500 mM; CaCl2 0–50 mM). Whey protein isolate (WPI) and gum arabic (GA) were used as reference emulsifiers. The lowest isolate concentrations needed to reach d32 = 1 µm in 30% oil-in-water emulsions were comparable for ASPI (6 mg/mL) and WPI (4 mg/mL). In contrast to WPI stabilized emulsions ASPI stabilized emulsions were stable around pH 5 at low ionic strength (I = 10 mM). Flocculation only occurred around pH 3, the pH with the smallest net droplet ¿-potential. Due to the charge contribution of the anionic polysaccharide fraction present in ASPI its droplet ¿-potential remained negative over the whole pH range investigated. An increase in ionic strength (=100 mM) led to a broadening of the pH range over which the ASPI stabilized emulsions were unstable. GA emulsions are not prone to droplet aggregation upon changes in pH or ionic strength, but much higher concentrations are needed to produce stable emulsions. Since ASPI allows the formation of stable emulsions in the pH range 5–7 at low protein concentrations, it can offer an efficient natural alternative to existing protein–polysaccharide complexes

Effect of charged polysaccharides on the techno-functional properties of fractions obtained from algae soluble protein isolate

It has been suggested previously that charged polysaccharides present in algae soluble protein isolate (ASPI) contribute to its foaming and emulsifying properties. In this study ASPI was fractioned into one fraction enriched in uronic acids (the building blocks of charged polysaccharides, [ASPI-UA]), one enriched in protein (ASPI-P) and one containing small, dissociated (glyco-)proteins (ASPI-S). Emulsions prepared using ASPI-UA were stable against flocculation between pH 3e7, while ASPI-P and ASPI-S showed decreased emulsion stabilities around pH 5. This indicates the importance of the charged polysaccharides present in ASPI for emulsion stability at pH 5. For the foaming properties of ASPI no effect of charged polysaccharides was observed. Instead, ASPI-S showed considerably higher foam stabilities at pH 5e7 than the other fractions. These results suggest that dependent on the application charged polysaccharides or dissociated (glyco-) proteins can contribute to ASPI’s techno-functional properties. Its further fractionation yields a fraction with improved emulsion stability and a fraction with improved foaming properties