Bats and roads: Evaluating methods for risk assessment

In this thesis I present my investigation into the impact of roads on bats in the UK. The road network is expanding rapidly around the world. Road infrastructure is expected to increase globally by an additional 25 million kilometres by 2050, an increase of 60% above 2010 levels. In the UK, road density is already extremely high. There are 395,000 kilometres of road, 50,000 kilometres of which are major roads. Roads divide the UK into 325,369 patches so that almost half the UK’s landcover is divided by roads into patches of less than 5km2. The UK’s road network is expected to expand by a further 640 kilometres of motorways and major roads by 2020. Roads have a wide range of impacts. Roads are a direct cause of habitat loss and fragmentation. Roadside habitats can also be considerably altered by noise, light and chemical pollution, changes to light and temperature regimes and the hydrological cycle. Roads also pose a direct threat to biodiversity; a wide range of taxa are killed by vehicles on roads. Bats may be vulnerable to the impact of roads. UK bat species use a much larger area for foraging than predicted for a mammal of their body size, typically within a radius of 1-6 km of the roost, depending on the species. The area within which bats forage is referred to as the core sustenance zone (CSZ), and for UK species the CSZ area can range from 3-112 km2. Due to their large range requirements, bats are likely to encounter roads frequently. If bats cross roads they are at risk of collision with vehicles. If bats do not cross roads, they may be limited to foraging within a suboptimal amount of space. I used a three-step procedure, examining the behavioural, ecological and physiological responses of bats to roads to provide an integrated assessment of the threats posed by roads to bats. First, I performed a systematic review of the literature and conducted meta-analyses to assess the threat posed by roads to bats as a result of (1) collisions with vehicles and (2) as a barrier to movement. Second, I tested whether the distribution of bat roosts in the UK relates to the size of patches created by major roads. I also examined the influence of patch quality including the density of minor roads, and the area of woodlands, grassland and built environments. To determine whether road-defined patches were occupied by at least one roost I used the locations of 6199 bat roosts obtained from Natural England and the National Bat Monitoring Programme (NBMP). Finally, I investigated whether corticosteroid levels, as exhibited by individuals within maternity roosts, correlated with a range of environmental variables including proximity to the nearest road and road density within the core sustenance zone. At step one, I found that major roads are more likely to be a barrier to movement than minor roads and that they influence the distribution of bat roosts in the UK. At step two, it was determined that roosts were less likely to be located in smaller patches as defined by major roads and were more likely to be found in patches with a greater area of woodland. Step three reveals a possible correlation between the density of minor roads within a roosts core sustenance zone and corticosteroid and gonadal steroids exhibited by members of that roost. This three step procedure could be applied to other genera where studies have been published on road crossing behaviour (Step 1), where the presence/absence and location of focal animals and their nests have been extensively recorded, and from which it is relatively easy to obtain faecal samples, especially without causing additional stress or distress for the focal animals

Sympatric woodland Myotis bats form tight-knit social groups with exclusive roost home ranges (dataset)

The article relating to this dataset is available in ORE: http://hdl.handle.net/10871/15799Dataset associated with the PLOS journal article with the same title. The two sets of data in the Excel file were used to create the networks in the Tiff file.Natural Environment Research Council (NERC

Citing the taxonomic literature: what a difference a year makes

We all know that the world of scientific publishing has changed profoundly since the onset of the digital revolution. One relatively new development is the rapid publication of scientific papers online, frequently before they are copyedited and typeset, and sometimes even before being peer reviewed (Sheldon 2018). Climate of the Past is one such journal that posts manuscripts online before they have been refereed. The purpose of doing this is to allow online discussion of a manuscript while it is under review in the conventional sense. Manuscripts may thus benefit from any useful feedback from readers as well as from the formal reviews. The above developments mean that scientific articles may appear online long before being assigned to a particular volume/issue and with final page numbers. Such assignments commonly occur in the following year when the complete volumes or issues of a journal appear in print and/ or digitally. Before the digital revolution, authors had to wait perhaps 12 months or more between acceptance and final publication. Today, just a week or two may elapse before the typescript of an accepted manuscript is available online. In most respects this revolution is good, especially now that many authors aim for metricised output targets. However, such early publication of a paper may cause complications regarding its referencing, but in most cases this does not really matter so long as the reference in a bibliography leads to the retrieval of the correct publication. For example, the paper cited below as Pound and Riding (2015) was initially issued online in 2015, prior to assignment to a volume of the Journal of the Geological Society published in 2016. Before 2016 it would have also been cited as Pound and Riding (2015) but that situation would not have lasted for long and would have affected very few, if any, citations. Electronic publication of a paper prior to assignment of the volume number and final pagination can be confusing, but in most cases problems are limited to referencing. However, it has critical implications for papers with biological systematics, especially those with new nomenclatural proposals (new taxa, combinations, substitute names, etc. – so-called nomenclatural novelties). Until recently, codes of nomenclature in botany and zoology required nomenclatural novelties to be published in paper format in publicly distributed articles. However, the most recent codes permit the publication of nomenclatural novelties in a hybrid (online and paper) journal or even in a purely electronic periodical (but not in an online database or catalogue)

Ecological impact assessments fail to reduce risk of bat casualties at wind farms

Demand for renewable energy is rising exponentially. While this has benefits in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, there may be costs to biodiversity [1]. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are the main tool used across the world to predict the overall positive and negative effects of renewable energy developments before planning consent is given, and the Ecological Impact Assessments (EcIAs) within them assess their species-specific effects. Given that EIAs are undertaken globally, are extremely expensive, and are enshrined in legislation, their place in evidence-based decision making deserves evaluation. Here we assess how well EIAs of wind-farm developments protect bats. We found they do not predict the risks to bats accurately, and even in those cases where high risk was correctly identified, the mitigation deployed did not avert the risk. Given that the primary purpose of an EIA is to make planning decisions evidence-based, our results indicate that EIA mitigation strategies used to date have been ineffective in protecting bats. In the future, greater emphasis should be placed on assessing the actual impacts post-construction and on developing effective mitigation strategies

The Bajocian (Middle Jurassic): a key interval in the early Mesozoic phytoplankton radiation

Dinoflagellates and coccolithophores are two of the most important groups of phytoplankton in the modern oceans. These groups originated in the Triassic and radiated through the early Mesozoic, rising to ecological prominence. Within this long-term radiation, important shortterm intervals of evolutionary and ecological change can be recognised. The Bajocian (Middle Jurassic, ~170–168 Ma) was characterised by an important ecological transition within the coccolithophores, and the radiation of one of the principal families of cyst-forming dinoflagellates, the Gonyaulacaceae. During the Early Bajocian, the coccolith genus Watznaueria diversified and expanded ecologically to dominate coccolith floras, a situation which continued for the remainder of the Mesozoic. This pattern was paralleled within dinoflagellate cyst floras by the ecological dominance of the genus Dissiliodinium in the midpalaeolatitudes. These phenomena appear to be linked to a positive carbon isotope shift, and an interval of enhanced productivity driven by a shift to a more humid climate, enhanced continental weathering and nutrient flux, or by changes in ocean circulation and upwelling. The latest Early Bajocian to earliest Bathonian was then characterised by the rapid increase in diversity of dinoflagellate cysts within the family Gonyaulacaceae. Through this interval, the Gonyaulacaceae transitioned from being a relatively minor component of dinoflagellate cyst floras, to becoming one of the prominent groups of cyst-forming dinoflagellates, which has persisted to the Holocene. In Europe, the pattern of this radiation was strongly influenced by sea level, with the increase in gonyaulacacean diversity reflecting a major second-order transgression. On a finer scale, the main pulses of first appearances correlate with third-order transgressive episodes. A rise in sea level, coupled with changes in the tectonic configuration of ocean gateways, appears to have controlled the pattern of plankton diversification in Europe. These palaeoceanographic changes may have enhanced water-mass transfer between Europe, the northwest Tethys Ocean and the Hispanic Corridor, which promoted the floral interchange of dinoflagellates. Whilst sea level rise and associated large-scale palaeoenvironmental shifts appear to have controlled the pattern of dinoflagellate cyst appearances in several regions outside Europe, there is no direct correlation between dinoflagellate cyst diversity and sea level rise on a global scale. Although the Bajocian was transgressive in several regions, widespread flooded continental area was also present throughout the preceding Aalenian, an interval of low gonyaulacacean diversity. Moreover, although the Middle Jurassic was an interval of major climatic cooling, there was a ~5 myr gap between the onset of cooling and the radiation of gonyaulacaceans during the Bajocian. The Bajocian was, however, marked by a major evolutionary radiation in the pelagic realm, including ammonites, giant suspension feeding fishes and planktonic foraminifera. These phenomena may indicate an underlying ecological driver to the radiation of dinoflagellates during the Bajocian evolutionary explosion which could represent an extension of the Mesozoic Marine Revolution.This work has arisen from the PhD project of Nickolas J. Wiggan which was supported by NERC BGS DTG award reference BUFI S246, entitled The mid Jurassic plankton explosion. This was funded jointly between the British Geological Survey and the University of Cambridge. James B. Riding publishes with the approval of the Executive Director, British Geological Survey (NERC). We thank the Review Papers Coordinator, Tim Horscroft, for inviting this contribution. Nick Butterfield (Cambridge) is thanked for discussions and suggestions during NJW’s PhD project. We also thank Daniel Mantle and Fabienne Giraud, whose insightful reviews greatly improved the quality of this manuscript

A review of the Sentusidinium complex of dinoflagellate cysts

The Jurassic to Neogene (Miocene) dinoflagellate cyst genus Sentusidinium has a relatively simple overall morphology. This genus, together with Batiacasphaera, Kallosphaeridium and Pentafidia, comprises the Sentusidinium complex. This is distinct from the superficially similar laterally asymmetrical and subspheroidal/lenticular Cyclonephelium complex. The genus Sentusidinium is an acavate, subcircular, proximate to proximochorate, sexiform gonyaulacacean genus with an apical archaeopyle and typically low relief ornamentation. Since the erection of Sentusidinium in 1978, three similar genera have been established, which we consider to be taxonomic junior synonyms of that genus: Barbatacysta, Escharisphaeridia and Pilosidinium. However, we deem the Early Cretaceous to Miocene genera Batiacasphaera, Kallosphaeridium and Pentafidia are deemed to be separate from Sentusidinium. We refine the definition of the Early Cretaceous to Miocene genus Batiacasphaera to circumscribe cysts with a reticulate to rugulate autophragm and an apical archaeopyle with a free operculum. By contrast, Kallosphaeridium has a ventrally attached apical archaeopyle with five plates that can be interpreted as type (4A1I)@ or type (5A)@; it also has a small operculum relative to the overall cyst diameter. The six accepted Kallosphaeridium species are confined to the Palaeogene. The Australian genus Pentafidia is unusual in appearing to only have five precingular plates; this comprises two species from the Jurassic–Cretaceous transition of Western Australia. Therefore, we emend Sentusidinium to restrict it to acavate, proximate or proximochorate dinoflagellate cysts with an autophragm devoid of, or covered with, highly variable, non-linear ornamentation and a type (tA) apical archaeopyle. Occasionally the elements of ornamentation may be connected, but rarely is a cingulum indicated, and the tabulation is never clearly evident. A kalyptra may be occasionally present. The operculum is free. Following a comprehensive literature review, we accept 17 species in Batiacasphaera. In Kallosphaeridium we accept six species confidently and consider six species to be problematical. We list 38 (34 accepted and four problematical) species of Sentusidinium. Kallosphaeridium? helbyi is here transferred to Cyclonephelium without question. The species Batiacasphaera angularis is occasionally tabulate and hence we transfer it, with question, to Meiourgonyaulax. The Sentusidinium complex is clearly polyphyletic, and all genera considered herein belong to the order Gonyaulacales. Batiacasphaera, Kallosphaeridium and Pentafidia cannot be confidently assigned to a family, whereas Sentusidinium belongs to the Gonyaulacaceae. The number of species within the complex has been reduced from 137 to 68; furthermore, all infraspecific taxa have been eliminated

Honey bee foraging distance depends on month and forage type

To investigate the distances at which honey bee foragers collect nectar and pollen, we analysed 5,484 decoded waggle dances made to natural forage sites to determine monthly foraging distance for each forage type. Firstly, we found significantly fewer overall dances made for pollen (16.8 %) than for non-pollen, presumably nectar (83.2 %; P < 2.2 × 10−23). When we analysed distance against month and forage type, there was a significant interaction between the two factors, which demonstrates that in some months, one forage type is collected at farther distances, but this would reverse in other months. Overall, these data suggest that distance, as a proxy for forage availability, is not significantly and consistently driven by need for one type of forage over the other

First-level trigger systems for LHC experiments

We propose to carry out a broad-based programme of R&D on level-1 trigger systems for LHC experiments. We will consider the overall level-1 which coordinates different subtriggers and which interacts with the front end electronics and with the level-2 system. Careful attention will be paid to systems aspects and problems of synchronization within the pipelined processor system. Trigger algorithms for selecting events with high-pt electrons, photons, muons, jets and large missing Et will be evaluated by physics simulation studies. We will study possible implementations of such trigger algorithms in fast electronics by making conceptual design studies and using behavioural simulation models. For critical areas more detailed design studies will be made, and prototypes of some key elements will be constructed and tested. The proposed R&D project builds on existing studies and will complement other R&D projects already funded by the DRDC

Deglacial landscapes and the Late Upper Palaeolithic of Switzerland

The presence of people in Switzerland in recently deglaciated landscapes after the Last Glacial Maximum represents human utilisation of newly available environments. Understanding these landscapes and the resources available to the people who exploited them is key to understanding not only Late Upper Palaeolithic settlement in Switzerland, but more broadly human behavioural ecology in newly inhabited environmental settings. By applying bone collagen stable isotope analysis (δ13C, δ15N and δ34S) to faunal remains from Late Upper Palaeolithic localities in Switzerland, we investigate animal ecology and environmental conditions during periods of human occupation. High and relatively uniform δ34S values indicate that landscapes north of the Jura Mountains provided comparatively stable environmental conditions, while lower and more variable δ34S values on the Swiss Plateau suggest a dynamic landscape with diverse hydrological and pedological conditions, potentially linked to regionally different patterns of permafrost thaw. This contrasts with the archaeological record that appears relatively uniform between the two regions, suggesting people were employing similar subsistence behaviours across a range of environmental settings. The pattern of change in δ15N across the deglacial period appears consistent between areas that remained ice-free throughout the LGM and those that were glaciated. Most notable is a period of exclusively low δ15N values between 15,200 and 14,800 cal. BP, which could relate a regional expansion of floral biomass in response to environmental change

Sympatric woodland Myotis bats form tight-knit social groups with exclusive roost home ranges

Background: The structuring of wild animal populations can influence population dynamics, disease spread, and information transfer. Social network analysis potentially offers insights into these processes but is rarely, if ever, used to investigate more than one species in a community. We therefore compared the social, temporal and spatial networks of sympatric Myotis bats (M. nattereri (Natterer's bats) and M. daubentonii (Daubenton's bats)), and asked: (1) are there long-lasting social associations within species? (2) do the ranges occupied by roosting social groups overlap within or between species? (3) are M. daubentonii bachelor colonies excluded from roosting in areas used by maternity groups? Results: Using data on 490 ringed M. nattereri and 978 M. daubentonii from 379 colonies, we found that both species formed stable social groups encompassing multiple colonies. M. nattereri formed 11 mixed-sex social groups with few (4.3%) inter-group associations. Approximately half of all M. nattereri were associated with the same individuals when recaptured, with many associations being long-term (>100 days). In contrast, M. daubentonii were sexually segregated; only a quarter of pairs were associated at recapture after a few days, and inter-sex associations were not long-lasting. Social groups of M. nattereri and female M. daubentonii had small roost home ranges (mean 0.2 km2 in each case). Intra-specific overlap was low, but inter-specific overlap was high, suggesting territoriality within but not between species. M. daubentonii bachelor colonies did not appear to be excluded from roosting areas used by females. Conclusions: Our data suggest marked species- and sex-specific patterns of disease and information transmission are likely between bats of the same genus despite sharing a common habitat. The clear partitioning of the woodland amongst social groups, and their apparent reliance on small patches of habitat for roosting, means that localised woodland management may be more important to bat conservation than previously recognised