Promoting future teachers' evidence-informed reasoning scripts: effects of different forms of instruction after problem-solving

Pre-service teachers face difficulties when dealing with problem situations in the classroom if their evidence-informed reasoning script (EIRS) is not adequately developed. An EIRS might be promoted by demonstrating how to implement evidence-informed reasoning after a problem-solving activity on an authentic case. However, it is unclear what form of instruction is appropriate to promote pre-service teachers in the development of an EIRS. The present 2×3-factorial experimental intervention study investigated how different forms of instruction on functional procedures (example-free vs. example-based) and on dysfunctional procedures (without vs. example-free vs. example-based) affect the development of an EIRS. N = 384 pre-service teachers worked on a written case vignette of a problem situation in a problem-solving phase, in which the crucial steps of the EIRS were prompted externally. In the subsequent instruction phase, the participants compared their own solution with an example-free or example-based instruction on functional procedures, which was either supplemented by an example-free or example-based instruction on typical dysfunctional procedures or not at all. The participants’ learning success (declarative EIRS; near and far transfer problem-solving performance) and error awareness were assessed. The results revealed that the example-based instruction on functional procedures led to a higher learning success than the example-free instruction. Both forms of instruction on dysfunctional procedures improved learning success compared to learning without one. During learning, error awareness was higher for learners who worked with an example-free instruction on dysfunctional procedures. In order to promote the development of an EIRS in pre-service teachers, it is promising to provide instruction after problem-solving that presents a functional example of evidence-informed reasoning for the given problem and that also points out typical dysfunctional approaches to solving the problem. The results highlight the importance of selecting appropriate scaffolds in case-based learning approaches that aim to develop cognitive schemata. The mechanisms that explain when and why instructions on dysfunctional procedures work need to be further explored

Interactive computer-based simulations as exploratory learning activities.

Typical college lectures follow a direct instruction framework, where instructors deliver a lecture, followed by an activity. Exploratory learning flips this routine by providing students with an activity prior to instruction. Research suggests that this inversion benefits students’ conceptual understanding and ability to transfer their knowledge. The majority of exploratory learning tasks in the literature are problem-solving activities. The current work investigates the use of computer-based simulations during exploratory learning, and whether manipulating the cognitive load of the activity impacts learning. In Experiment 1, undergraduate students (N=66) were randomly assigned to explore a simulation-based circuit construction activity prior to instruction (explore-first) or receive instructions on the topic prior to the activity (instruct-first). The learning assessment consisted of conceptual knowledge and transfer of knowledge to a similar topic. Participants in the instruct-first condition scored higher on the assessment than participants in the explore-first condition, and reported lower cognitive load. In Experiment 2, participants received one of two versions of the exploration activity, designed to provide stronger guidance and reduce intrinsic or extraneous cognitive load. Undergraduate students (N=195) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions based on order (explore-first or instruct-first) and cognitive load reduction type (intrinsic load reduction or extraneous load reduction). Participants in the intrinsic load reduction conditions scored at an equal level on conceptual knowledge, and higher on transfer, compared to participants in the extrinsic load reduction conditions, regardless of order. Across both experiments, participants in the explore-first conditions reported motivational benefits (higher curiosity and higher perceived knowledge gaps). Yet the instruct-first approach led to higher learning, suggesting that these components are not enough for effective exploratory learning, even when reducing intrinsic cognitive load through guidance. Simulation environments may be too complex for students to effectively explore the deep problem features that otherwise provide conceptual advantages

A necessity-driven ride on the abstraction rollercoaster of CS1 programming

International audienceIntroductory programming courses (CS1) are difficult for novices. Inspired by Problem solving followed by instruction and Productive Failure approaches, we define an original "necessity driven" learning design. Students are put in an apparently well-known situation, but this time they miss an essential ingredient (the target concept) to solve the problem. Then, struggling to solve it, they experience the necessity of that concept. A direct instruction phase follows. Finally, students return to the problem with the necessary knowledge to solve it. In a typical CS1 learning path, we recognise a challenging "rollercoaster of abstraction". We provide examples of learning sequences designed with our approach to support students when the abstraction changes (both upward and downward) inside the programming language, for example, when a new construct (and the related syntactical, conceptual, and strategic knowledge) is introduced. Also, we discuss the benefits of our design in light of Informatics education literature

Learning by Teaching: Key Challenges and Design Implications

Benefits of learning by teaching (LbT) have been highlighted by previous studies from a pedagogical lens, as well as through computer-supported systems. However, the challenges that university students face in technology-mediated LbT—whether it be teaching oneself, teaching a peer, or teaching an agent—is not well understood. Furthermore, there is a gap in knowledge on the challenges that students encounter throughout the process of teaching (content selection, preparation, teaching, receiving and giving feedback, and reflection) despite its importance to the design of LbT platforms. Thus, we conducted a thematic analysis on results we gathered from 24 university students where they taught content that they had not fully grasped and their semi-structured interviews. Results demonstrate that the participants encountered the following challenges: psychological barriers relating to self and others, and lack of know-how. Furthermore, we illuminate design implications required to overcome these challenges and benefit from LbT without requiring prior training in pedagogy. In addition, we outline university students’ perception on various tools and configurations a LbT platform could include

Productive Failure in Virtual Language Learning for English

Vocabulary and syntax are challenges for English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners when they want to communicate in English. Task-based Language Teaching is commonly used in EFL teaching of vocabulary and syntax, which is a type of Direct Instruction (DI) that involves the initial use of explicit language instruction followed by a language learning activity. This study compared the efficacy for language learning of a different type of pedagogical approach, Productive Failure (PF), which delays instruction until after a language learning activity, to Direct Instruction (DI). There were three main language learning assessment areas: (a) students' declarative and procedural knowledge in the written production of the target language, (b) students' declarative and procedural knowledge in the spoken production of the target language, and (c) students' cognitive and metacognitive strategies in learning. English language education department freshmen in an Indonesian university (N=112) participated in the study by performing language learning activities in Second Life (SL), which is a 3-D virtual learning environment. They were randomly assigned to two language learning treatment groups. The PF group finished a communicative task on describing places prior to receiving explicit instruction. In contrast, the DI group watched an instructional video before completing a communicative task on describing places. This was followed by students in both groups finishing a similar communicative task in SL. Data from pre-and post-tests were analysed quantitatively, and video captures were transcribed and analysed qualitatively. The quantitative results found that PF group students performed significantly higher on the English syntax written assessment and both groups performed equally on the written vocabulary assessment. However, both groups performed equally on the spoken assessments of syntax and vocabulary. In the qualitative analysis, the PF students were found to use more self-regulated learning strategies and study tactics than DI students. The pattern of these findings is discussed in terms of previous research and theory. Overall, these findings suggest further research is warranted to investigate the use of PF language learning activities that involve the use of a virtual learning environment

Productive Failure in Gifted Students

Problem-solving or invention as preparation for instruction has been gaining steady attention in the literature as a viable alternative to the traditional explicit instruction. Nevertheless, the efficacy with its use with non-typical populations has not yet been investigated. This thesis investigated the effectiveness of invention tasks and worked examples as preparation for future explicit instruction. It also investigated the impact of structure via contrasting cases in a full-factorial design for non-gifted and gifted adolescents. The effects of instruction on the non-academic outcomes of self-efficacy, extraneous load, perceived knowledge gaps, curiosity and interest were also assessed. Three experiments were conducted with a total of 682 seventh-grade students in independent, academically selective and non-selective public schools. The first two experiments featured a 2 (invention-first vs example-first) x 2 (contrasting cases vs non-contrasting cases) x 2 (gifted vs non-gifted) research design. No significant differences between conditions were found on any learning outcomes. It may have been that the non-contrasting cases condition in Experiment 1 was suboptimal, leading to increased extraneous load and decreased deep feature recall in contrasting cases conditions. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 with re-designed materials for the non-contrasting conditions. Invention-first conditions performed better on transfer outcomes, and gifted students benefited from invention-first conditions more so than example-first conditions. Experiment 3 was conducted with only gifted students. It found that being aware of the structure in the first task outweighed instruction in importance when assessed on learning outcomes. These findings challenge the traditional method of explicit instruction and provides support for the viability of invention-first instruction for use with gifted students

Productive failure in medical education: Addressing issues in problem-based learning by improving consolidation

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has a critical blind-spot – its closing phase has insufficient learning theory and research, and may be depriving students of consolidation. This thesis incorporates elements from Productive Failure (PF) in the closing phase of PBL. It investigates how deep learning, transfer, and preparedness for conceptual change was (or was not) occurring for students in the redesigned PF PBL and in regular practice (Traditional PBL). PF PBL was implemented in a classroom-based study on four tutorial classes (29 students, 4 tutors) for four weeks at an Australian university’s medical program. Quantitative and qualitative data included video observations, student knowledge surveys including explanatory written responses, student-generated concept maps, confidence ratings, examination results, interviews, and opinion surveys. While all classes were meant to enact PF PBL for two weeks each, the video observations triangulated with surveys and interviews indicated that only two classes implemented PF PBL sufficiently. With this, there was a PF PBL group and a Traditional PBL group. The PF PBL group outperformed the Traditional PBL group on questions that targeted higher-level explanation and transfer skills, was overall better able to explain their responses to multiple-choice questions, had confidence and knowledge scores that were more often significantly correlated, and expressed a desire to change their concept maps in significantly more substantial ways. A particular benefit of PF PBL was found when it was implemented to the greatest extent. The qualitative results provide insight regarding what following (and not following) PF PBL looked like, and also participant opinions. This dissertation ends with key theoretical and educational implications and recommendations for future practice, including a future iteration of PF PBL

Teaching informatics to novices: big ideas and the necessity of optimal guidance

This thesis reports on the two main areas of our research: introductory programming as the traditional way of accessing informatics and cultural teaching informatics through unconventional pathways. The research on introductory programming aims to overcome challenges in traditional programming education, thus increasing participation in informatics. Improving access to informatics enables individuals to pursue more and better professional opportunities and contribute to informatics advancements. We aimed to balance active, student-centered activities and provide optimal support to novices at their level. Inspired by Productive Failure and exploring the concept of notional machine, our work focused on developing Necessity Learning Design, a design to help novices tackle new programming concepts. Using this design, we implemented a learning sequence to introduce arrays and evaluated it in a real high-school context. The subsequent chapters discuss our experiences teaching CS1 in a remote-only scenario during the COVID-19 pandemic and our collaborative effort with primary school teachers to develop a learning module for teaching iteration using a visual programming environment. The research on teaching informatics principles through unconventional pathways, such as cryptography, aims to introduce informatics to a broader audience, particularly younger individuals that are less technical and professional-oriented. It emphasizes the importance of understanding informatics's cultural and scientific aspects to focus on the informatics societal value and its principles for active citizenship. After reflecting on computational thinking and inspired by the big ideas of science and informatics, we describe our hands-on approach to teaching cryptography in high school, which leverages its key scientific elements to emphasize its social aspects. Additionally, we present an activity for teaching public-key cryptography using graphs to explore fundamental concepts and methods in informatics and mathematics and their interdisciplinarity. In broadening the understanding of informatics, these research initiatives also aim to foster motivation and prime for more professional learning of informatics