Towton, 1461: An integrated approach to battlefield archaeology

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Examining Reactive Arthropathy in Military Skeletal Assemblages: A Pilot Study Using the Mass Grave Assemblage from the Battle of Towton (1461)

Military personnel are often subjected to physical exertion, sleep deprivation, deficient diets, overcrowding, and stress. All of these influences are capable of compromising the immune system’s ability to ward off disease-causing bacteria, thus explaining why the historical narrative of war is frequently accompanied by reports of death and suffering due to epidemics of infectious diseases. Historically some of the most common infections included: diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid fever, gonorrhoea, and streptococcal tonsillitis. The bacteria which cause these diseases are also capable of triggering arthritis. When an arthritic condition is triggered by an infectious microbe it can broadly be referred to as “reactive arthropathy,” of which the spondyloarthritides (SpAs) are of great interest. Since the bacteria associated with these arthritic conditions are responsible for the epidemics which have plagued combatants for centuries, it is reasonable to assume that reactive arthropathy was present in past military populations. This assertion can be tested through a prevalence study of military related skeletal assemblages. To test the methodology and gain preliminary results for this research project, a pilot study was carried out using remains from the 1461 Battle of Towton. The methodology was deemed to be sound and the statistical results, while not significant, were promising

Northumberland at War

At the Battle of Towton in 1461 the Lancastrian forces of Henry VI were defeated by the Yorkist forces of Edward IV. However Henry VI, with his wife, son and a few knights, fled north and found sanctuary in Scotland, where, in exchange for the town of Berwick, the Scots granted them finance, housing and troops. Henry was therefore able to maintain a presence in Northumberland and his supporters were able to claim that he was in fact as well as in theory sovereign resident in Northumberland. For three years and four months he was able to be maintained in this state and to offer a real challenge to Edward IV. This thesis seeks to answer the question, ‘how was it possible that the Lancastrian presence survived for such a long time?’ This under-researched episode in English history is the subject of this dissertation. It examines the lack of zest of Henry VI and how his wife, Margaret of Anjou, and some of her knights, notably Sir Ralph Percy and Henry, Duke of Somerset, made up for this by bravery and resource. It examines the lacklustre performance of the Scots and the reluctance of the French to get fully involved in England’s most northern county. It shows that the claim of almost all historians that Northumberland was a Lancastrian county is altogether false and that the number of local people who were involved in the fighting was in fact very small. This dissertation interrogates the secondary sources and tests them against both the primary sources and the logistical possibilities and restrictions of fifteenth-century warfare. The result is a retelling of a familiar story with surprising results

Now the wars are over: The past, present and future of Scottish battlefields

Battlefield archaeology has provided a new way of appreciating historic battlefields. This paper provides a summary of the long history of warfare and conflict in Scotland which has given rise to a large number of battlefield sites. Recent moves to highlight the archaeological importance of these sites, in the form of Historic Scotland’s Battlefields Inventory are discussed, along with some of the problems associated with the preservation and management of these important cultural sites

The Imperfect Warrior: Disability and Surgery on the Medieval English Battlefield

This paper questions the assumption that medieval European medicine was unsophisticated and ineffective, unable to aid injured or disabled warriors. Three instances from English history refute this: the case of King Richard III, who was an accomplished warrior despite having scoliosis; the fact that King Henry V was able to recover fully from a serious battle wound; and the existence of a common soldier from the Wars of the Roses who had a similar, successful recovery. Historical evidence and the work of modern scholars, like Tobias Capwell, point to many cases of successful battlefield surgeries and supportive technology. When fitted with specially tailored armour, a man with similar scoliosis to Richard III was trained in 15th century riding and fighting techniques. The surgeon John Bradmore gave a full account of the methods and tools he used to heal Henry V’s facial injury caused by an arrow. Finally, historians and archaeologists studying a skull found at the site of the Battle of Towton were able to determine that the deceased had sustained a fractured jawbone, which was healed ten years prior to his death. The paper ends by asserting that given the evidence, medieval English fighters with physical disadvantages received effective care and assistance that allowed their careers to continue despite their setbacks. This offers insight into the quality of the medicine available to them and shows that committed patient care is not a modern phenomenon

Getting to the point: An experimental approach to improving the identification of penetrating projectile trauma to bone caused by medieval arrows.

The bow and arrow were an important part of medieval warfare, and the study of projectile injuries in skeletal assemblages has the potential to give valuable insight into the nature of conflict in this period. Projectile injuries are often overlooked in favour of sharp force trauma, and as of yet there have been no experiments looking at skeletal trauma caused by different types of medieval arrows, although several studies have examined prehistoric impact marks. The current study addresses this deficiency by examining the lesions left by three kinds of medieval arrowheads: leaf-shaped broadheads, armour-piercing bodkins, and barbed hunting broadheads, when fired from a longbow into cattle scapulae. The results show that the vast majority of impacts are puncture lesions with shapes that roughly conform to the cross-section of the heads used, and many of the defects perforate the bone entirely and have internal bevelling. Based mostly on wound shape, it is relatively straightforward to distinguish between bodkin and broadhead punctures, while the different types of broadheads leave more similar, yet distinctive, marks. Further experiments are required in order to assess the extent to which it is possible to distinguish between projectile trauma and penetrating trauma made by other types of medieval weapons

English Armor and Its Relation to Tactics: 1415-1515

To determine if there is tactical change in English battles during 1415-1515, the components of tactics need analysis. The components of tactics analyzed here are the changes in weapons, changes in the composition of the army, changes in the choice of topography, and changes in the preference for offense versus defense. Weapons are the thing on the battlefield that armor is directly attempting to counter, so changes in weapons or armor will have ramifications on each other. A change in the composition of the army, what type of soldier is fighting, is important because different types of soldiers have different needs, expose themselves to different types of threat, and have to perform different tasks in their armor. A cavalryman does not have to use his body the same way an archer does, and the archer does not have to use his body in the same way as a dismounted man-at-arms. Where an army chooses to fight has tactical implications; different positions provide advantages and disadvantages. Finally, an army preferring to be on the offense or defense will expose the soldiers to different kinds of threats and demands. A defender does not have to move around the battlefield as much, but an individual attacker may be more concerned about delivering the strongest blow possible, which could be impeded by armor. Alternatively, by being the attacker, a soldier may expose himself to more danger so more protection would be of the utmost importance. These components of tactics, when compared with the components of armor, will further the understanding of what soldiers valued during 1415-1515. The relationship between armor and battlefield tactics during 1415-1515 England will help further the understanding of how humans utilize technology. This paper will look into if technology drives battlefield change or if battlefield change drives technology or both. The paper will help assess the relative value of trying to use technology to manipulate the battlefield, versus manipulating technology to fit the battlefield