4 research outputs found

    Motivational, cognitive, emotional, and moral factors in bullying and cyberbullying

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    Los chicos y chicas aprenden a interaccionar y comunicarse con sus iguales a partir de las relaciones interpersonales que mantienen en la escuela. Relaciones que pueden verse enturbiadas o alteradas por situaciones de desequilibrio y abuso entre los iguales que llegan a afectar a su propio desarrollo psicosocial. El acoso escolar es un fen贸meno que quebranta la convivencia positiva entre los escolares que ha llamado la atenci贸n de las familias, profesores, pol铆ticos, investigadores y de la sociedad en general durante las 煤ltimas d茅cadas. El acoso escolar puede definirse como una agresi贸n intencional y repetida en el tiempo que uno o m谩s individuos hacen sobre otro igual (Olweus, 1993). Entre v铆ctima y agresor se establece un desequilibrio de poder sostenido del que la v铆ctima se encuentra indefensa y sin posibilidades de parar la situaci贸n de abuso (Ortega-Ruiz, 2010). La intencionalidad de la agresi贸n refleja que esta conducta puede ser una estrategia instrumental para el logro o mantenimiento del estatus y del dominio social (Hawley, 1999; Pouwels et al., 2018). El acoso escolar tambi茅n se caracteriza por su naturaleza inmoral, pues atenta contra los valores de respeto y afecto hacia los dem谩s (Ortega & Mora-Merch谩n, 1996). Este tipo de violencia entre iguales viola los principios 茅ticos y fomenta la injusticia, el desprecio, la coacci贸n y la soledad. A trav茅s del desarrollo de la tecnolog铆a y el acceso a Internet, el ciberacoso ha emergido como una nueva forma de acoso. El ciberacoso se define como un comportamiento agresivo intencionado y repetido en el tiempo mediante dispositivos digitales a cargo de uno o varios individuos contra alguien que no puede protegerse (Campbell & Bauman, 2018). Si bien el ciberacoso comparte caracter铆sticas del acoso escolar, es necesario matizar algunas distinciones (Smith, 2016). En el ciberespacio la repetici贸n en el tiempo est谩 vinculada con la posibilidad de que una sola conducta de agresi贸n puntual puede multiplicarse en la red, m谩s que con la repetici贸n de la conducta por parte del agresor (Olweus & Limber, 2018). El hecho de quedar almacenada y ser accesible hace que pueda ser reenviada por terceras personas. En el ciberacoso el desequilibrio de poder se vincula con el dominio de las habilidades tecnol贸gicas (Kowalski et al., 2014), as铆 como con el anonimato, que facilita la deshibibici贸n de la agresi贸n, adem谩s de dificultar su identificaci贸n (Nickerson et al., 2018). Si bien la intencionalidad en el cara a cara tiene por objetivo da帽ar a la v铆ctima, en el ciberespacio la reducida comunicaci贸n hace que el da帽o causado no sea directamente percibido por el agresor. Adem谩s, la accesibilidad permanente hace que la v铆ctima sea vulnerable 24/7 (24 horas los 7 d铆as de la semana), lo cual puede agudizar sus consecuencias psicosociales (DePaolis & Williford, 2019). Numerosos programas de prevenci贸n e intervenci贸n han emergido para tratar de reducir la implicaci贸n de los escolares en acoso escolar y ciberacoso. No obstante, la investigaci贸n psicoevolutiva respalda la necesidad de continuar profundizando en los mecanismos que explican por qu茅 algunos escolares se implican en conductas de agresi贸n. A trav茅s de la presente tesis se desarrollan tres estudios independientes鈥攁unque relacionados entre s铆鈥攃on la finalidad de contribuir al avance cient铆fico que permita comprender c贸mo diferentes variables de naturaleza individual y grupal se vinculan con la implicaci贸n de los escolares en acoso escolar y ciberacoso. En el primer estudio se analiza la relaci贸n entre la desconexi贸n moral, la necesidad de popularidad y el acoso escolar en los escolares. Vinculado con la naturaleza inmoral de la agresi贸n, uno de los factores asociados con la implicaci贸n de los escolares en el acoso escolar es la desconexi贸n moral, entendida como el conjunto de estrategias cognitivas que permiten eludir las emociones asociadas al incumplimiento de las normas morales interiorizadas (Bandura, 2002). A trav茅s de la desconexi贸n moral los escolares pueden desactivar selectivamente su proceso de autorregulaci贸n y llegar a considerar que la agresi贸n puede ser leg铆tima. La desconexi贸n moral se ha analizado como un factor de riesgo en la agresi贸n del acoso escolar principalmente de forma transversal (v茅ase meta-an谩lisis; Gini et al., 2014; Killer et al., 2019). Un menor n煤mero de estudios longitudinales han evidenciado c贸mo aquellos escolares con mayor desconexi贸n moral se involucran posteriormente en la agresi贸n entre iguales (Bj盲rehed et al., 2021; Falla et al., 2020, 2021; Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). Sin embargo, no existen resultados concluyentes que permitan afirmar que el acoso escolar puede predecir la desconexi贸n moral (Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019; Visconti et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). La relaci贸n longitudinal entre desconexi贸n moral y acoso escolar se ha analizado teniendo en cuenta que este mecanismo cognitivo es una caracter铆stica estable del individuo (Thornberg et al., 2021). No obstante, a煤n se necesitan estudios que aborden la desconexi贸n moral como un estado o un proceso que puede cambiar y derivar o ser el resultado de un aumento o disminuci贸n de la implicaci贸n en acoso escolar a corto plazo. El acoso escolar, adem谩s de ser definido como un fen贸meno inmoral tambi茅n se caracteriza por su marcado car谩cter social pues surge y se mantiene en el seno del grupo de los iguales. En ese sentido, se ha demostrado que la popularidad tiene una gran influencia en las conductas de los escolares. La popularidad otorga a los chicos y chicas el acceso a los recursos del grupo (visibilidad, prestigio y atenci贸n), lo que les permite tener cierto dominio social. Estos beneficios posibilitan que muchos de ellos desempe帽en conductas destinadas a ser reconocido como popular, movidos precisamente por lo que se denomina necesidad de popularidad (Santor et al., 2000). En algunos casos, la agresi贸n se convierte en una estrategia efectiva para acceder a ese deseado estado de dominio e influencia sobre los dem谩s (Malamut et al., 2020). La necesidad de popularidad se ha reconocido como un factor de riesgo del acoso escolar (Caravita & Cillessen, 2012; Duffy et al., 2017; Garandeau & Lansu, 2019; Romera et al., 2017; Sijtsema et al., 2009) e incluso, en menor medida, se ha considerado como un resultado del acoso escolar (Dumas et al., 2019; Malamut et al., 2020). Aunque la necesidad de popularidad y la desconexi贸n moral no se han vinculado previamente, determinadas perspectivas te贸ricas apuntan a una posible asociaci贸n entre motivaci贸n y moralidad. En la desconexi贸n moral, las motivaciones personales constituyen un elemento clave en la desactivaci贸n selectiva de las estrategias de autorregulaci贸n de la conducta social. En base a ello, las motivaciones de naturaleza ego铆sta, como puede ser la necesidad de ser popular, pueden determinar el juicio moral de los escolares (Thomas, 2021). La necesidad de popularidad se ha analizado en estudios previos como un rasgo estable a lo largo del tiempo (Dawes & Xie, 2017). No obstante, se necesitan estudios longitudinales que aborden la necesidad de popularidad como un estado, es decir, como una caracter铆stica que puede variar a corto plazo y que puede influir o ser influenciada por un aumento o disminuci贸n del acoso escolar y la desconexi贸n moral (McDonald & Asher, 2018).Boys and girls learn to interact and communicate with their peers from the interpersonal relationships they maintain at school. These relationships can be disturbed or altered by situations of imbalance and abuse among peers, which can affect their psychosocial development. Bullying is a phenomenon that interrupts the positive convivencia among schoolchildren and has attracted the attention of families, teachers, politicians, researchers, and society in general during the last decades. Bullying can be defined as intentional and repeated aggression over time that one or more individuals carry out against another peer (Olweus, 1993). A sustained imbalance of power is established between victim and aggressor, in which the victim is defenseless and cannot put an end to the situation of abuse (Ortega-Ruiz, 2010). The intentionality of the aggression shows that this behavior can be an instrumental strategy to achieve or maintain social status and dominance (Hawley, 1999; Pouwels et al., 2018). Bullying is also characterized by its immoral nature, as it violates the values of respect and affection for others (Ortega & Mora-Merch谩n, 1996). This type of peer violence violates ethical principles and fosters injustice, contempt, coercion, and loneliness. Through the development of technology and Internet access, cyberbullying has emerged as a new form of bullying. Cyberbullying is defined as aggressive behavior, intentional and repeated over time through digital devices by one or more individuals against someone who cannot protect themselves (Campbell & Bauman, 2018). Although cyberbullying shares bullying characteristics, some distinctions need to be qualified (Smith, 2016). In cyberspace, repetition over time is linked to the possibility that a single behavior of punctual aggression can multiply in the network, rather than the repetition of the behavior by the aggressor (Olweus & Limber, 2018). The fact that it is stored and accessible means that it can be forwarded by third parties. In cyberbullying, the imbalance of power is linked to the mastery of technological skills (Kowalski et al., 2014), as well as anonymity, which facilitates the disinhibition of aggression, also making it difficult to identify the bully (Nickerson et al., 2018). Whereas face-to-face intentionality aims to harm the victim, in cyberspace, reduced communication means that the damage caused is not directly perceived by the bully. Further, permanent accessibility makes the victim vulnerable 24/7 (24 hours a day, 7 days a week), which can exacerbate the psychosocial consequences (DePaolis & Williford, 2019). Numerous prevention and intervention programs have emerged to try to reduce the involvement of schoolchildren in bullying and cyberbullying. However, psychodevelopmental research supports the need to continue delving into the mechanisms that explain why some schoolchildren engage in aggressive behaviors. Through this thesis, three independent鈥攁lbeit related鈥攕tudies are performed, to contribute to the scientific advance that allows to understand how different variables of a motivational, moral, emotional, and cognitive nature are linked to schoolchildren's engagement in bullying and cyberbullying. The first study analyzes the relationship between moral disengagement, the need for popularity, and bullying perpetration in schoolchildren. Linked to the immoral nature of aggression, one of the factors associated with schoolchildren's involvement in bullying is moral disengagement, understood as the set of cognitive strategies that allow avoiding the emotions associated with the breach of internalized moral norms (Bandura, 2002). Through moral disengagement, schoolchildren can selectively deactivate their self-regulation process and come to consider aggression as legitimate. Moral disengagement has been analyzed mainly transversally as a risk factor in aggression in school bullying (see meta-analyses; Gini et al., 2014; Killer et al., 2019). A smaller number of longitudinal studies have shown how schoolchildren with greater moral disengagement subsequently engage in peer aggression (Bj盲rehed et al., 2021; Falla et al., 2020, 2021; Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). However, there are no conclusive results that allow to affirm that bullying can predict moral disengagement (Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019; Thornberg, W盲nstr枚m, Pozzoli, et al., 2019; Visconti et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). The longitudinal relationship between moral disengagement and bullying has been analyzed considering that this cognitive mechanism is a stable characteristic of the individual (Thornberg et al., 2021). However, studies are still needed that address moral disengagement as a state or process that can change and derive from or be the result of an increase or decrease in involvement in bullying in the short term. Bullying, in addition to being defined as an immoral phenomenon, is also characterized by its marked social nature because it arises and is maintained within the peer group. In that sense, it has been shown that popularity greatly influences schoolchildren's behaviors. Popularity gives boys and girls access to the group's resources (visibility, prestige, and attention), which allows them to have some social dominance. These benefits allow many of them to perform behaviors that are considered popular, driven precisely by the so-called need for popularity (Santor et al., 2000). In some cases, bullying becomes an effective strategy to access that coveted state of dominance and influence over others (Malamut et al., 2020). The need for popularity has been recognized as a risk factor for bullying (Caravita & Cillessen, 2012; Duffy et al., 2017; Garandeau & Lansu, 2019; Romera et al., 2017; Sijtsema et al., 2009) and, to a lesser extent, it has even been considered an outcome of bullying (Dumas et al., 2019; Malamut et al., 2020). Although the need for popularity and moral disengagement have not been previously linked, certain theoretical perspectives point to a possible association between motivation and morality. In moral disengagement, personal motivations constitute a key element in the selective deactivation of the self-regulatory strategies of social behavior. In this sense, selfish motivations, like the need to be popular, can determine schoolchildren's moral judgment (Thomas, 2021). The need for popularity has been analyzed in previous studies as a stable trait over time (Dawes & Xie, 2017). Nonetheless, longitudinal studies are needed that address the need for popularity as a state, that is, a characteristic that may vary in the short term and that may influence or be influenced by an increase or decrease in bullying and moral disengagement (McDonald & Asher, 2018)

    Screen Time and Productivity: An Extension of Goal-setting Theory to Explain Optimum Smartphone Use

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    Over the past several years, much research has examined the negative consequences that can arise from smartphone use. To help reduce these consequences, companies have developed smartphone applications and features to enable self-monitoring behaviors. However, the mechanisms that have caused smartphone-enabled self-monitoring behaviors to emerge and the positive outcomes that might result from such behaviors have received limited scholarly attention. In this study, we ameliorate this gap by proposing a framework that highlights key antecedents and outcomes of screen- time self-monitoring success based on a smartphone-based self-monitoring intervention. Informed by a short-term longitudinal study, our results show how smartphone-based self-monitoring can enhance awareness of smartphone use and, consequently, lead to positive outcomes for users. Our findings reveal that how users perceive smartphone self- monitoring affordances, their outcome expectations, and their smartphone self-monitoring efficacy positively relate to the extent they engage in smartphone-based self-monitoring behavior. In turn, self-monitoring enhances user productivity and leads to an overall sense of contentment with achievement. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that self-monitoring fatigue negatively moderates these relationships. This study offers novel theoretical and practical insights to encourage users to use smartphones in a more regulated manner. More generally, this study contributes to the literature on self-monitoring and self-regulation in digitally enabled environments
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