Advancing task involvement, intrinsic motivation and metacognitive regulation in physical education classes: the self-check style of teaching makes a difference

It was hypothesized that “self-check” style of teaching would be more preferable in terms of creating a mastery-oriented climate, and promoting adaptive achievement goals, intrinsic motivation and metacognitive activity in physical education classes. Two hundred seventy-nine (N = 269) 6-grade students were randomly divided into two groups that were taught four consecutive physical education lessons of the same content following either “practice” or “self-check” styles of teaching respectively. Students responded on questionnaires prior and after the intervention. Results revealed significant interactions between groups and measurements. Students in the “self-check” style group scored higher in scales measuring mastery-oriented climate, mastery goal, intrinsic motivation and metacognitive processes and lower in scales measuring performance-goals and performance-oriented motivational climate. These results underscore the importance of using styles of teaching that enhance opportunities for deep cognitive processing and promote mastery-goals and mastery-oriented climates

Applying science of learning in education: Infusing psychological science into the curriculum

The field of specialization known as the science of learning is not, in fact, one field. Science of learning is a term that serves as an umbrella for many lines of research, theory, and application. A term with an even wider reach is Learning Sciences (Sawyer, 2006). The present book represents a sliver, albeit a substantial one, of the scholarship on the science of learning and its application in educational settings (Science of Instruction, Mayer 2011). Although much, but not all, of what is presented in this book is focused on learning in college and university settings, teachers of all academic levels may find the recommendations made by chapter authors of service. The overarching theme of this book is on the interplay between the science of learning, the science of instruction, and the science of assessment (Mayer, 2011). The science of learning is a systematic and empirical approach to understanding how people learn. More formally, Mayer (2011) defined the science of learning as the “scientific study of how people learn” (p. 3). The science of instruction (Mayer 2011), informed in part by the science of learning, is also on display throughout the book. Mayer defined the science of instruction as the “scientific study of how to help people learn” (p. 3). Finally, the assessment of student learning (e.g., learning, remembering, transferring knowledge) during and after instruction helps us determine the effectiveness of our instructional methods. Mayer defined the science of assessment as the “scientific study of how to determine what people know” (p.3). Most of the research and applications presented in this book are completed within a science of learning framework. Researchers first conducted research to understand how people learn in certain controlled contexts (i.e., in the laboratory) and then they, or others, began to consider how these understandings could be applied in educational settings. Work on the cognitive load theory of learning, which is discussed in depth in several chapters of this book (e.g., Chew; Lee and Kalyuga; Mayer; Renkl), provides an excellent example that documents how science of learning has led to valuable work on the science of instruction. Most of the work described in this book is based on theory and research in cognitive psychology. We might have selected other topics (and, thus, other authors) that have their research base in behavior analysis, computational modeling and computer science, neuroscience, etc. We made the selections we did because the work of our authors ties together nicely and seemed to us to have direct applicability in academic settings

The Effects of Self-Regulated Learning Strategy Instruction and Structured-Diary Use on Students\u27 Self-Regulated Learning Conduct and Academic Success in Online Community-College General Education Courses

Student success in community-college online courses remains a topic of concern within higher-education research. Online courses offer flexibility and opportunities for students to learn anytime and anywhere. Students who are not prepared for the anytime-anywhere format struggle in online courses. As enrollment in online courses increases, the rate at which students persist through courses with satisfactory academic success is inconsistent. Effective ways to promote student success in online courses is an area that remains under-researched. Self-regulated learning has been shown to promote online student success by supporting student engagement, learning strategy use, and consistent evaluation of academic performance through instructional interventions and practice adopting the self-regulated learning process. The mixed methods study examined the effect of self-regulated learning strategy interventions on students\u27 self-regulated learning conduct and academic success in community-college online courses. Two intact classes of community-college online students participated in the studies in two subsequent quarters. Both curriculum-embedded interventions included instruction in a self-regulated learning strategic framework focused on, goal setting, actions, monitoring, and evaluation of self-regulated learning processes, followed by weekly implementation of the framework throughout the duration of online courses. Students\u27 perceptions were assessed before and after intervention and compared with academic performance, final course grades. Additionally, students completed structured-diary responses to evaluate implementation of self-regulated learning process. Results indicated that increases in students\u27 perceptions of self-regulated learning behaviors postintervention were significant in Study 1, and not significant in Study 2. Increases in students\u27 perceptions of metacognition were significant in both studies. Relationships between final course grades and students\u27 perceptions postintervention were moderate and not significant. Structured-diary responses revealed that students set goals centered on completing course assignments and time management and employed several learning strategies in support of achieving goals. Students perceived the framework as straightforward, adaptable, and effective. Results suggest that self-regulated learning strategy intervention was successful in raising the metacognitive awareness and self-regulated learning skill levels of community-college online students. Increased metacognitive awareness and self-regulated learning skills positively contributed to students\u27 efficacy for academic success in online courses. Implications of these studies contribute to research examining self-regulated learning strategy instruction as a means for promoting online student success

What Do You Mean I Got a D+? Effects of Feedback Type and Quality on Academic Performance, Metacognition, and Motivation in High School Students

Numerous studies have established that feedback is among the most effective ways to improve student achievement. However, not all studies have defined feedback in the same way, so the effectiveness of feedback has depended on how it has been defined and the context in which it was provided (Hattie & Timperely, 2007). This study investigated the effects of a feedback intervention on student academic performance, metacognition, and motivation. The students in the study came from two sections of a high school world history class at an inter-district magnet school in Hartford, Connecticut. All feedback was provided by the same teacher over the course of a 4-week instructional unit. Students in the experimental group received elaborated written comments that detailed strengths in their work along with one specific area for improvement, but grades were withheld until the end of the instructional unit, whereas students in the control group were given brief written comments about their work along with grades after each assignment in the instructional unit. The effectiveness of the feedback intervention was assessed by having students take a knowledge-based test before and after the intervention. Metacognition and motivational variables (self-efficacy, achievement values, test anxiety, extrinsic and intrinsic goal orientation, and control of learning beliefs) were also assessed at both time points. Student perceptions of the usefulness of feedback were also collected before and after the unit to assess the level of engagement students had with the feedback they received. As predicted, the feedback intervention found significant effects for academic performance and some measures of motivation, but found no effects on metacognition, most measures of motivation, and perceptions of feedback. Implications of the study’s findings are discussed in terms of processing feedback as a multidimensional skill

Inter-Relationships Among Several Person-Related Attributes in Reading and Metacomprehension: Complexity and Educational Implications

Reading is one of the most basic academic skills. An accurate monitor of one’s text comprehension (i.e., metacomprehension) is essential for effective reading as it guides learning and choices of appropriate strategy used to maximize overall understanding. The processes of reading comprehension and metacomprehension are affected by text-related, task-related, and reader- /person-related factors. One of the two purposes of this report is to provide a brief review of consistent research findings on the interrelationships among several person-related variables and the complexity of those associations in reading and metacomprehension. The person variables discussed include personality, motivation, goal orientations, self-regulation, reading strategy use, and academic effort expenditure. A second purpose is to highlight practical educational implications from the prominent research evidence for classroom teaching

Metacognition, Motivation and Emotions: Contribution of Self-Regulated Learning to Solving Mathematical Problems

Mathematical problem solving is among the most valuable aspects of mathematics education. It is also the hardest for elementary school students (Verschaffel, Greer & De Corte, 2000). Students experience cognitive and metacognitive difficulties in this area and develop negative emotions and poor motivation which hamper their efforts (Kramarski, Weiss, & Kololshi-Minsker, 2010).  9–11 seems the critical stage for developing attitudes and emotional reactions towards mathematics (Artino, 2009). These metacognitive and motivational-emotional factors are fundamental components of Self-Regulated Learning (SRL), a non-innate process requiring systematic, explicit student training (Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2000). Most self-regulation studies relating to problem-solving focus on metacognition. Few explore the motivational-emotional component. This study aimed to develop, examine, and compare two SRL interventions dealing with two additional components of self-regulation: metacognitive regulation (MC) and motivational-emotional regulation (ME). It also sought to examine the significance of these components and their contribution to learners' problem-solving achievements and self-regulation. The study examined 118 fifth grade students, randomly assigned to two groups. Pre- and post-intervention, the two groups completed self-regulation questionnaires relating to metacognition, motivation, and emotion. They also solved arithmetic series problems presented in two ways (verbal form and numeric form). After intervention we also examined a novel transfer problem. The intervention consisted of 10 hours for 5 weeks. Following the intervention the groups exhibited similar improvements across all the problems. The MC group performed best in metacognitive self-regulation and the ME group performed best in certain motivational-emotional aspects of self-regulation. Research implications are discussed

Towards a Framework for Metacognition in Game-Based Learning

\u3cp\u3eGame-based learning can motivate learners and help them to acquire new knowledge in an active way. However, it is not always clear for learners how to learn effectively and efficiently within game-based learning environments. As metacognition comprises the knowledge and skills that learners employ to plan, monitor, regulate, and evaluate their learning, it plays a key role in improving their learning in general. Thus, if we want learners to become better at learning through game-based learning, we need to investigate how metacognition can be integrated into the design of game-based learning environments. In this paper we introduce a framework that aids designers and researchers to formally specify the design of game-based learning environments encouraging metacognition. With a more formal specification of the metacognitive objectives and the way the training design and game design aims to achieve these goals, we can learn more through analysing and comparing different approaches. The framework consists of design dimensions regarding metacognitive outcomes, metacognitive training, and metacognitive game design. Each design dimension represents two opposing directions for the design of a game-based learning environment that are likely to affect the encouragement of metacognitive awareness within learners. As such, we introduce a formalised method to design, evaluate and compare games addressing metacognition, thus enabling both researchers and designers to create more effective games for learning in the future.\u3c/p\u3

Motivation, Learning Strategies, and Language Competency in a Technology Facilitated Chinese as a Second Language Classroom

The present study examines the effectiveness of a game-based mobile technology application Kahoot on the motivation and language competency of high school student learning Chinese as a second language, and the relationship among student motivation, learning strategy use, and language competency in such a technology-facilitated classroom. Data was collected using pre and post surveys from a class of 18 students taught by a teacher candidate in a Chinese teaching licensure program at a state university. The results indicate significant student improvements in two areas of Chinese language learning: reading and speaking, though no significant difference was found in the areas of listening and vocabulary or in student motivation. Motivation and learning strategies were found to be positively related to Chinese proficiency, with the exception of cognitive and affective strategies which mainly correlate with Chinese speaking competency. Findings and limitations of the study were discussed and implications for future research were suggested

TOWARDS OPTIMAL SCAFFOLDING OF LOW ACHIEVERS’ LEARNING : combining intertwined, dynamic, and multi-domain perspectives

This dissertation aims to contribute to the optimal scaffolding of low achievers’ learning. Scaffolding research has traditionally concentrated on teachers’ short-term support and, thus, has not scrutinized the calibration of long-term support for students’ learning. The aim of this dissertation is to theoretically and empirically deepen our understanding of scaffolding and learning as intertwined, dynamic, and multi-domain processes. Methodologically, the aim is to develop tools to systematically analyze intertwined multi-domain scaffolding and learning dynamics. With these tools, the opportunities created and taken up during interactions by both low achievers and their teachers are scrutinized and integrated to unveil both low achievers’ readiness for challenges and teachers’ flexibility in calibrating scaffolding to students’ needs. On a practical level, by developing and identifying scaffolding practices, this dissertation aims to promote and explore teachers’ professional development in optimal scaffolding. To achieve these aims, this dissertation comprises four intervention studies. The mixed methods approach, including carefully designed tests, quasi-experimental and single-subject designs, and longitudinal in-depth case studies with systematic interaction video-observations, was used in the studies. In Study I, the aim was to determine the effectiveness of multi-domain scaffolding in supporting low achievers’ learning. We designed an intervention to develop the cognitive–metacognitive and motivational–emotional domains needed in mathematical word problem solving. To overcome challenges reported in earlier studies on scaffolding low achievers’ complex skills, our intervention combined teacher scaffolding with word problems embedded in a computer-supported adventure game. During the instructional discussions, the students were scaffolded to become active, strategic, and motivated problem solvers. Altogether, 429 general education fourth grade 10-year-old students participated. Intervention students (n = 8) and two pairwise-matched controls for each intervention student (n = 16) were selected from the lowachievers in word problem solving among the total sample. Intervention students participated in the intervention in pairs during 14 game lessons. Each lesson lasted approximately 45 minutes. At the group level, some positive and lasting effects for the intervention group’s word problem solving were indicated by the statistical test results and effect sizes from the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up test comparisons. After the intervention, the intervention group’s word problem solving skills no longer differed from those of the other students (n = 405), who served as a comparison group to establish the typical skill level of the age group. By contrast, the control groups’ skills still were below the typical level. When the individual learning dynamics behind the group level were scrutinized, large intra- and inter-individual variability were identified. Observations showed the power of the innovative learning environment in deepening students’ engagement in problem solving, but also the challenges in scaffolding low achievers’ complex skills. It was concluded that low achievers’ word problem solving skills progress when they are given intensive and systematic multi-domain teacher scaffolding in a carefully designed computer-supported learning environment. The interesting variability in the low achievers’ development and the vital role of the instructional discussion between the low achievers and the teacher highlighted the importance of in-depth analysis of multi-domain scaffolding interactions to deepen our understanding of the most optimal ways to scaffold low achievers and formed the basis of Studies II to IV. In Study II, the aim was to establish the potential of dynamic interaction analysis to study scaffolding. We introduced an educational application of the State Space Grid (SSG) method for analyzing teachers’ scaffolding in relation to students’ learning in real time. We also built a theoretically integrated optimal scaffolding model that uses concepts of interpersonal positioning, creation, and the take-up of opportunities to interpret interactions illustrated with SSGs. Based on the optimal scaffolding model, during scaffolding, students are positioned by moment-to-moment opportunities to participate in particular ways. Over time, these interpersonal positions establish diverse learning trajectories. To successfully support learning in the cognitive–metacognitive domain, scaffolding was supposed to include both dynamic matches between opportunities created by the teacher and taken up by the students and opportunities created by the teacher at a higher level than the students’ following participation. Methodological illustrations were produced by analysing from videotapes the strategic levels of opportunities created and taken up between a special education teacher and three fourth-grade low achievers during three lessons in a multi-domain small-group reading comprehension intervention. The results showed that teacher domination and interaction at low matched levels were very typical. Interactions at high levels were rare. Missed opportunities were observed when the teacher created high-level opportunities, but faced challenges in pulling low achievers to this level or failed to take up opportunities created by the low achievers. These missed opportunities showed that the teacher had difficulties calibrating her level of scaffolding to pull the lowachievers toward new levels of independent activity. With these methodological illustrations, we established the power of SSGs for representing and analyzing instructional match and mismatch in the cognitive–metacognitive domain. We also showed that studying scaffolding interactions has great potential for understanding teachers’ expertise and the dynamics behind resistance and resilience to learning. The methodological and theoretical progress made in Study II formed the basis for scrutinizing long-term scaffolding interactions with more cases in Study III. In Study III, the aim was to deepen understanding of the intertwined and dynamic nature of evolving scaffolding patterns in the cognitive–metacognitive domain. We further developed the optimal scaffolding model and applications of the SSG method for studying long-term scaffolding. To capture opportunities created and taken up during extended processes, all intervention lessons in two small groups were analyzed from videotapes (19 lessons/group, altogether 21,428 contributions). Both groups participated in the reading comprehension intervention developed in Study II, and interactions were analysed in the same way as in Study II. The results demonstrated that low-level matches were too typical and high-level matches too rare also during long-term scaffolding. Based on the optimal scaffolding model, we expected an increase in high-level matches and a decrease in low-level matches during the intervention. However, there were no linear changes in the matched interactions. The most promising but, unfortunately, frequently missed potential emerged when the teacher or the low achievers created opportunities by participating at a higher level than the other participant. We expected an increase in opportunities created by the teacher during the intervention. However, one of the two teachers did not increase and the other even decreased high-level opportunities. Interestingly, there was a linear increase in the high-level opportunities created by the low achievers in both groups. Unfortunately, the teachers did not flexibly take up the low achievers’ increasing readiness for high-level participation. Interesting group differences, fluctuations and non-linear developments were also found. This study deepened our understanding of the intertwined and dynamic nature of cognitive–metacognitive scaffolding and emphasized the need to continue developing collaborations between researchers and teachers to increase optimal scaffolding. Future research was challenged to understand the scaffolding in both the cognitive–metacognitive and the motivational–emotional domains to deepen the understanding of the systemic formation and maintenance of learning dynamics. In Study IV, we took the next step towards this grand goal by scrutinizing teachers’ emotional scaffolding. In Study IV, the aim was to gain insight into the nature and evolution of scaffolding in the motivational–emotional domain. We developed a systematical observation method to deepen the understanding of teachers’ emotional scaffolding and its variation during interaction processes. Methodological illustrations were produced by analysing from videotapes the teachers’ emotional support in a multi-domain dialogic story readingintervention. Videos from four preschool teachers were used to develop emotional support categories based on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Using the developed categories, we observed the positive, neutral, and negative emotional support of the other two preschool teachers, called here Petra and Leena, developmentally across the intervention during three sessions, variation of emotional support during single reading sessions and typical expressions of emotional support. The results showed that both preschool teachers provided mainly positive or neutral emotional support and seldom negative emotional support. Leena provided more positive emotional support and had more and longer consistent phases in her emotional support than Petra, whose emotional support was mainly neutral. However, Leena’s emotional support showed more inter-session variation than Petra’s. Consistent, harmful-to-learning phases (variations between negative and neutral emotional support) were observed in Petra’s mainly neutral emotional support in each session. Positive emotional support typically manifested as engaged reading, positive feedback, and encouraging facial expressions. Negative emotional support was typically shown by insensitivity and inflexibility to the children’s perspectives. With the help of the systematic observation method, it was possible to scrutinize the differences between the cases and both the stability and the variability of emotional support. The developed emotional support classification offers an in-depth method for recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of emotional support. Applying this classification to other kinds of interaction contexts, skill levels, and age groups would increase the understanding of emotional support in different contexts. In the future, emotional interaction could also be investigated from the perspective of the children to deepen the understanding of the complex systemic nature of emotional interactions by showing how children’s participation is intertwined with emotional support. Taken together, the four studies demonstrated that, to progress towards optimal scaffolding of low achievers’ learning, scaffolding needs to be scrutinized not only theoretically, but also empirically by combining intertwined, dynamic, and multi-domain perspectives. Variability of learning dynamics within and between students emphasizes that the careful, on-going calibration of the multi-domain support from the teacher and the learning environment are vital in optimally scaffolding each student’s progress towards learning goals during long-term interventions. New methods developed to systematically analyze and represent educationally meaningful multi-domain interaction patterns revealed several challenges in scaffolding low achievers. Low-level matches were too typical and high-level matches too rare. This highlights a need to strengthen teachers’ skills in scaffolding students’ take-up of high-level opportunities, which are pivotal for their learning of complex cognitive–metacognitive skills. Teachers should also sensitively listen to and flexibly follow up on opportunities created by their students by joining them in interactions directed towards the learning goals. The scaffolding interactions did not gradually move towards high levels even though it was expected to happen during the long-term intervention. The low achieversshowed increasing readiness for high-level participation; however, unfortunately, this was not flexibly taken up by the teachers. Based on the findings of this dissertation, we need to carefully consider how to optimally spend the precious time we can afford for scaffolding low achievers. The scaffolding interactions should focus on or at least gradually move towards focusing on high strategic and meta-strategic levels during long-term processes. To construct optimal cognitive–metacognitive scaffolding backed by consistent positive emotional support, we also need to pay greater attention to emotional support. Otherwise, the limited resources are non-optimally used for supporting low achievers’ learning of complex skills.KOHTI OPPIMISVAIKEUSOPPILAIDEN OPPIMISEN OPTIMAALISTA OHJAUSTA: Yhteenkietoutuneisuuden, dynaamisuuden ja moniulotteisuuden näkökulmia yhdistellen Tämä väitöskirja pyrkii edistämään oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimisen optimaalista ohjaamista. Ohjausvuorovaikutustutkimus on perinteisesti keskittynyt opettajien lyhytkestoiseen tukeen eikä ole huolellisesti tarkastellut ohjauksen yhteensovittumista oppilaiden oppimisen kanssa pitkäkestoisissa prosesseissa. Tämän väitöskirjan tavoitteena on teoreettisesti ja empiirisesti syventää ymmärrystämme ohjauksesta ja oppimisesta yhteenkietoutuneina, kehityksellisesti vaihtelevina ja moniulotteisina prosesseina. Menetelmällisesti tavoitteena on kehittää välineitä systemaattisesti analysoida ohjauksen ja oppimisen yhteenkietoutunutta moniulotteista dynamiikkaa. Näiden välineiden avulla tarkastellaan ja integroidaan sekä oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden että opettajien luomia ja toteuttamia mahdollisuuksia. Näin voidaan selvittää sekä oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden valmiutta tarttua haasteisiin että opettajien joustavuutta sovittaa ohjaustaan oppilaiden oppimistarpeisiin. Käytännön tavoitteena on edistää opettajien ammatillista kehittymistä optimaalisen ohjausvuorovaikutuksen toteuttamisessa tunnistamalla ja kehittämällä oppimisen ohjaustapoja. Näiden tavoitteiden saavuttamiseksi väitöskirja koostuu neljästä opetuskokeilututkimuksesta, joissa käytettiin monimenetelmäistä lähestymistapaa. Menetelmällisiin ratkaisuihin sisältyi huolellisesti suunniteltuja testejä, näennäiskokeellinen asetelma, yksittäistapaus-tutkimusasetelma sekä syvälle luotaavia pitkittäistapaustutkimuksia, joissa vuorovaikutusta havainnointiin systemaattisesti videoilta. Tutkimuksessa I tavoitteena oli arvioida moniulotteisen ohjauksen tehokkuutta oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimisen tukemisessa. Suunnittelimme opetuskokeilun kehittämään matemaattisessa ongelmanratkaisussa tarvittavia kognitiivis–metakognitiivisia ja motivationaalis–emotionaalisia ulottuvuuksia. Opetuskokeilussamme opettajan ohjaus yhdistettiin seikkailulliseen tietokonepeliin sijoitettuihin sanallisiin ongelmanratkaisutehtäviin, jotta voitiin yrittää vastata aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissaesille nostettuihin haasteisiin oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimisen ohjaamisessa. Opetuskeskusteluissa oppilaita ohjattiin aktiivisiksi, strategisiksi ja motivoituneiksi ongelmanratkaisijoiksi. Tutkimukseen osallistui 429 yleisopetuksen 4. luokkalaista. Opetuskokeiluun osallistuvat oppilaat (n = 8) ja jokaiselle kaksi mahdollisimman soveltuvaa vertailuoppilasta (n = 16) valittiin sellaisista tutkimukseen osallistuneista oppilaista, joilla oli vaikeuksia sanallisten ongelmien ratkaisemisessa. Oppilaat osallistuivat opetuskokeiluun pareittain neljällätoista noin 45 minuutin pelikerralla. Myönteisiä ja pysyviä vaikutuksia opetuskokeiluun osallistuneiden ongelman-ratkaisutaitoihin havaittiin ryhmätasolla alku- ja loppumittauksen sekä viivästetyn mittauksen tilastollisten testausten ja vaikutusten kokojen perusteella. Opetuskokeilun jälkeen siihen osallistuneen ryhmän ongelmanratkaisutaidot eivät enää eronneet ikäryhmän tyypillisestä tasosta (n = 405), mutta kontrolliryhmien taidot olivat edelleen tyypillistä tasoa alhaisemmat. Tarkasteltaessa yksilöiden kehitystä ryhmätason taustalla havaittiin suurta yksilöiden välistä ja sisäistä vaihtelua. Opetuskokeilun aikaiset havainnot osoittivat innovatiivisen oppimisympäristön voiman oppilaiden syvälliseen ongelmanratkaisuun sitoutumisen lisäämisessä, mutta myös haasteita oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden monimutkaisten taitojen oppimisen ohjaamisessa. Tulosten perusteella oppimisvaikeusoppilaat kehittyvät sanallisessa ongelmanratkaisussa, kunhan tarjotaan intensiivistä, systemaattista ja moniulotteista opettajan ohjausta huolellisesti suunnitellussa tietokoneavusteisessa oppimisympäristössä. Oppilaiden kehityserot ja opetuskeskustelun keskeisyys korostivat ohjausvuorovaikutuksen huolellisen analysoinnin tärkeyttä pyrkiessämme syventämään ymmärrystä optimaalisimmista tavoista ohjata oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden oppimista sekä muodostivat pohjan tutkimuksille II-IV. Tutkimuksessa II tavoitteena oli osoittaa kehitykselliseen tarkasteluun soveltuvan vuorovaikutusanalyysin mahdollisuudet ohjausvuorovaikutuksen tutkimisessa. Esittelimme opetuksellisen sovelluksen vuorovaikutusruudukosta (State Space Grid), jolla voidaan tutkia opettajan ohjausta suhteessa oppilaiden osallistumisiin reaaliajassa. Kehitimme myös teoreettisesti integroidun lähestymistavan, joka käyttää käsitteitä yksilöiden välinen asemointi sekä mahdollisuuksien luominen ja toteutuminen tulkitessaan vuorovaikutusruudukkoa. Lähestymistapamme perusteella ohjausvuorovaikutuksessa hetki-hetkeltä luodut mahdollisuudet asemoivat oppilaita osallistumaan tietyin tavoin. Ajan kuluessa yksilöiden väliset asemat vakiintuvat muodostaen erilaisia oppimispolkuja. Onnistunut kognitiivis–metakognitiivinen ohjausvuorovaikutus edellyttää sekä jatkuvasti uudelleen määrittyvää yhteensopivuutta opettajan luomien mahdollisuuksien ja oppilaiden toteumien välillä että opettajan luomia mahdollisuuksia, jotka ovat korkeammalla tasolla kuin oppilaiden sen hetkinen osallistuminen. Menetelmällisiä esimerkkikuvauksia tuotettiin analysoimalla videoilta erityisopettajan ja kolmen 4. luokkalaisen oppimisvaikeusoppilaan luomien ja toteuttamien mahdollisuuksien strategisia tasoja. Analyysi kohdistui kolmeen pienryhmässä toteutettuun moniulotteisen luetun ymmärtämisen opetuskokeilunoppituntiin. Tulokset osoittivat, että opettajan dominointi sekä opettajan ja oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden vuorovaikutus samalla alhaisella tasolla olivat erittäin tyypillisiä. Vuorovaikutus korkeilla tasoilla sen sijaan oli harvinaista. Menetettyjä mahdollisuuksia havaittiin, kun opettaja loi mahdollisuuksia korkealla tasolla, mutta ei saanut oppimisvaikeusoppilaita tälle tasolle tai epäonnistui oppilaiden luomiin mahdollisuuksiin tarttumisessa. Menetetyt mahdollisuudet osoittivat, että opettajalla oli vaikeuksia johdonmukaisesti nostaa ohjaustasoaan kohti oppimisvaikeusoppilaiden uusia itsenäisen toiminnan tasoja. Menetelmällisten kuvausten avulla osoitimme vuorovaikutusruudukoiden voiman kognitiivis–metakognitiivisen ohjausvuorovaikutuksen osallistumisten yhteensopivuuden ja -sopimattomuuden kuvaamisessa ja analysoinnissa. Osoitimme myös, että ohjausvuorovaikutusten tutkiminen tarjoaa mahdollisuuden ymmärtää paremmin opettajan asiantuntijuutta sekä oppimisen onnistumisiin ja haasteisiin liittyvää ohjausvuorovaikutusta. Tutkimuksen menetelmälliset ja teoreettiset edistysaskeleet muodostivat perustan ohjausvuorovaikutusten entistä systemaattisemmalle tutkimiselle pidempien vuorovaikutusprosessien aikana useammissa esimerkkitapauksissa tutkimuksessa III. Tutkimuksessa III tavoitteena oli syventää ymmärrystä kognitiivis–metakognitiivisten ohjausvuorovaikutuksen yhteenkietoutuneesta ja kehityksellisesti vaihtelevasta luonteesta. Kehitimme edelleen teoreettista malliamme optimaalisesta

Motivation, Learning Strategies, and Language Competency in a Technology Facilitated Chinese as a Second Language Classroom

The present study examines the effectiveness of a game-based mobile technology application Kahoot on the motivation and language competency of high school student learning Chinese as a second language, and the relationship among student motivation, learning strategy use, and language competency in such a technology-facilitated classroom. Data was collected using pre and post surveys from a class of 18 students taught by a teacher candidate in a Chinese teaching licensure program at a state university. The results indicate significant student improvements in two areas of Chinese language learning: reading and speaking, though no significant difference was found in the areas of listening and vocabulary or in student motivation. Motivation and learning strategies were found to be positively related to Chinese proficiency, with the exception of cognitive and affective strategies which mainly correlate with Chinese speaking competency. Findings and limitations of the study were discussed and implications for future research were suggested