A review of advances in pixel detectors for experiments with high rate and radiation

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments ATLAS and CMS have established hybrid pixel detectors as the instrument of choice for particle tracking and vertexing in high rate and radiation environments, as they operate close to the LHC interaction points. With the High Luminosity-LHC upgrade now in sight, for which the tracking detectors will be completely replaced, new generations of pixel detectors are being devised. They have to address enormous challenges in terms of data throughput and radiation levels, ionizing and non-ionizing, that harm the sensing and readout parts of pixel detectors alike. Advances in microelectronics and microprocessing technologies now enable large scale detector designs with unprecedented performance in measurement precision (space and time), radiation hard sensors and readout chips, hybridization techniques, lightweight supports, and fully monolithic approaches to meet these challenges. This paper reviews the world-wide effort on these developments.Comment: 84 pages with 46 figures. Review article.For submission to Rep. Prog. Phy

4-Dimensional Tracking with Ultra-Fast Silicon Detectors

The evolution of particle detectors has always pushed the technological limit in order to provide enabling technologies to researchers in all fields of science. One archetypal example is the evolution of silicon detectors, from a system with a few channels 30 years ago, to the tens of millions of independent pixels currently used to track charged particles in all major particle physics experiments. Nowadays, silicon detectors are ubiquitous not only in research laboratories but in almost every high-tech apparatus, from portable phones to hospitals. In this contribution, we present a new direction in the evolution of silicon detectors for charge particle tracking, namely the inclusion of very accurate timing information. This enhancement of the present silicon detector paradigm is enabled by the inclusion of controlled low gain in the detector response, therefore increasing the detector output signal sufficiently to make timing measurement possible. After providing a short overview of the advantage of this new technology, we present the necessary conditions that need to be met for both sensor and readout electronics in order to achieve 4-dimensional tracking. In the last section we present the experimental results, demonstrating the validity of our research path.Comment: 72 pages, 3 tables, 55 figure

Noise and Cluster Size Studies of ALPIDE-CMOS Pixel Sensor for pCT

The use of proton beam has been introduced in medical physics for therapeutic purposes in cancer treatment and it has been proven much more efficient than conventional X-ray. Treatment planning in proton therapy is usually provided with information from X-ray CT where X-ray attenuation in tissue is needed to be converted to proton stopping power. This conversion leads to several uncertainties because proton interacts with matter in a different way than the photon. An intuitive way to mitigate this problem is using charged particles as the basis for the CT-scan and this is the time when the idea of “Proton CT” came up. There are nearly 10 pCT prototypes worldwide and all are designed with two separate devices for proton tracking and calorimetry. Few recent studies discovered the potential of merging these two separate systems into one uniquely featured Digital Tracking Calorimeter (DTC). The DTC is made of multiple layers of Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) chips. In this study, ALPIDE chip has been brought in as MAPS for DTC. The ALPIDE was developed for the heavy-ion experiment at CERN to detect high energy charged particles. For pCT, ALPIDE is conceptually an ideal sensor because of its low power consumption and chip area with more than half a million pixels with in-pixel readout scheme. This thesis is carried out in three main parts: • Characterization of ALPIDE chip focusing particularly on chip’s threshold and fake hit rate. • Measuring radiation-induced effects on the sensor performance. • Analysing sensor response for different types of radiation. In addition, I contributed to Proton Beam Test at OCL, Oslo and analyzed the data afterward. This thesis also includes the analysis performed on proton beam data and significant findings from the analysis. This study represents a key contribution to pCT in terms of defining the sensor behavior and interpreting sensor response.Master's Thesis in PhysicsMAMN-PHYSPHYS39

Novel Front-end Electronics for Time Projection Chamber Detectors

Este trabajo ha sido realizado en la Organización Europea para la Investigación Nuclear (CERN) y forma parte del proyecto de investigación Europeo para futuros aceleradores lineales (EUDET). En física de partículas existen diferentes categorías de detectores de partículas. El diseño presentado esta centrado en un tipo particular de detector de trayectoria de partículas denominado TPC (Time Projection Chamber) que proporciona una imagen en tres dimensiones de las partículas eléctricamente cargadas que atraviesan su volumen gaseoso. La tesis incluye un estudio de los objetivos para futuros detectores, resumiendo los parámetros que un sistema de adquisición de datos debe cumplir en esos casos. Además, estos requisitos son comparados con los actuales sistemas de lectura utilizados en diferentes detectores TPC. Se concluye que ninguno de los sistemas cumple las restrictivas condiciones. Algunos de los principales objetivos para futuros detectores TPC son un altísimo nivel de integración, incremento del número de canales, electrónica más rápida y muy baja potencia. El principal inconveniente del estado del arte de los sistemas anteriores es la utilización de varios circuitos integrados en la cadena de adquisición. Este hecho hace imposible alcanzar el altísimo nivel de integración requerido para futuros detectores. Además, un aumento del número de canales y frecuencia de muestreo haría incrementar hasta valores no permitidos la potencia utilizada. Y en consecuencia, incrementar la refrigeración necesaria (en caso de ser posible). Una de las novedades presentadas es la integración de toda la cadena de adquisición (filtros analógicos de entrada, conversor analógico-digital (ADC) y procesado de señal digital) en un único circuito integrado en tecnología de 130nm. Este chip es el primero que realiza esta altísima integración para detectores TPC. Por otro lado, se presenta un análisis detallado de los filtros de procesado de señal. Los objetivos más importantes es la reduccióGarcía García, EJ. (2012). Novel Front-end Electronics for Time Projection Chamber Detectors [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/16980Palanci

Technical Design Report for PANDA Electromagnetic Calorimeter (EMC)

This document presents the technical layout and the envisaged performance of the Electromagnetic Calorimeter (EMC) for the PANDA target spectrometer. The EMC has been designed to meet the physics goals of the PANDA experiment. The performance figures are based on extensive prototype tests and radiation hardness studies. The document shows that the EMC is ready for construction up to the front-end electronics interface

Electronic systems for intelligent particle tracking in the High Energy Physics field

This Ph.D thesis describes the development of a novel readout ASIC for hybrid pixel detector with intelligent particle tracking capabilities in High Energy Physics (HEP) application, called Macro Pixel ASIC (MPA). The concept of intelligent tracking is introduced for the upgrade of the particle tracking system of the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN: this detector must be capable of selecting at front--end level the interesting particle and of providing them continuously to the back-end. This new functionality is required to cope with the improved performances of the LHC when, in about ten years' time, a major upgrade will lead to the High Luminosity scenario (HL-LHC). The high complexity of the digital logic for particle selection and the very low power requirement of 95% in particle selection and a data reduction from 200 Tb/s/cm2 to 1 Tb/s/cm2. A prototype, called MPA-Light, has been designed, produced and tested. According to the measurements, the prototype respects all the specications. The same device has been used for multi-chip assembly with a pixelated sensor. The assembly characterization with radioactive sources conrms the result obtained on the bare chip

A Low-Power Silicon-Photomultiplier Readout ASIC for the CALICE Analog Hadronic Calorimeter

The future e + e − collider experiments, such as the international linear collider, provide precise measurements of the heavy bosons and serve as excellent tests of the underlying fundamental physics. To reconstruct these bosons with an unprecedented resolution from their multi-jet final states, a detector system employing the particle flow approach has been proposed, requesting calorimeters with imaging capabilities. The analog hadron calorimeter based on the SiPM-on-tile technology is one of the highly granular candidates of the imaging calorimeters. To achieve the compactness, the silicon-photomultiplier (SiPM) readout electronics require a low-power monolithic solution. This thesis presents the design of such an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) for the charge and timing readout of the SiPMs. The ASIC provides precise charge measurement over a large dynamic range with auto-triggering and local zero-suppression functionalities. The charge and timing information are digitized using channel-wise analog-to-digital and time-to-digital converters, providing a fully integrated solution for the SiPM readout. Dedicated to the analog hadron calorimeter, the power-pulsing technique is applied to the full chip to meet the stringent power consumption requirement. This work also initializes the commissioning of the calorimeter layer with the use of the designed ASIC. An automatic calibration procedure has been developed to optimized the configuration settings for the chip. The new calorimeter base unit with the designed ASIC has been produced and its functionality has been tested

Belle II Technical Design Report

The Belle detector at the KEKB electron-positron collider has collected almost 1 billion Y(4S) events in its decade of operation. Super-KEKB, an upgrade of KEKB is under construction, to increase the luminosity by two orders of magnitude during a three-year shutdown, with an ultimate goal of 8E35 /cm^2 /s luminosity. To exploit the increased luminosity, an upgrade of the Belle detector has been proposed. A new international collaboration Belle-II, is being formed. The Technical Design Report presents physics motivation, basic methods of the accelerator upgrade, as well as key improvements of the detector.Comment: Edited by: Z. Dole\v{z}al and S. Un

Development of prototype components for the Silicon Tracking System of the CBM experiment at FAIR

Das CBM-Experiment an der zukuenftigen Beschleunigeranlage FAIR wird die Eigenschaften von Kernmaterie unter extremen Bedingungen untersuchen. Das experimentelle Programm unterscheidet sich von den Schwerionen-Experimenten an RHIC (BNL) und LHC (CERN), die Kernmaterie bei hohen Temperaturen erzeugen. Im Gegensatz dazu kann die Untersuchung des QCD-Phasendiagramms, im Bereich der hoechsten Nettobaryonendichten und moderaten Temperaturen, die nur schwach untersucht wurden, mit hoher Praezision durchgefuehrt werden. Hierzu werden Kollisionen der verschiedenen Schwerionenstrahlen, bei Energien von 10-45GeV/Nukleon, mit nuklearem Target gemessen. Das physikalische Programm des CBM Experimentes umfasst die Messung sowohl der seltenen Sonden als auch der Mengenobservablen, die aus verschiedenen Zeitphasen des Zusammenstosses der Kerne stammen. Insbesondere kann der Zerfall von Teilchen mit Charm-Quarks durch Rekonstruktion des Zerfallsvertex, versetzt von dem primaeren Wechselwirkungspunkt um mehrere hundert Mikrometer, registriert werden. Hierzu ist praezises Tracking bei voller Ereignisrekonstruktion, mit bis zu 600 Spuren der geladenen Teilchen pro Ereignis innerhalb der Akzeptanz, noetig. Andere seltene Sonden erfordern den Betrieb bei einer Wechselwirkung von bis zu 10 MHz. Das Detektor-System, dass Tracking durchfuehrt, muss eine hohe Ortsaufloesung, auf der Ebene von 10 um leisten, mit hohen Arbeitsgeschwindigkeiten zu betreiben sein und ebenso ein strahlungstolerantes Design mit geringem Materialbudget besitzen. Das Silicon Tracking System (STS) wurde entwickelt um die Spuren geladener Teilchen in einem Magnetfeld zu rekonstruieren. Das System besteht aus acht Tracking Stationen, die sich in der Oeffnung eines Dipolmagneten mit 1T Feld befinden. Bei Spuren mit Impulsen ueber 1 GeV, betraegt die Impulsaufloesung bei einem solchen System etwa 1%. Um diese Aufgabe erfuellen zu koennen, ist eine sorgfaeltige Optimierung des Detektordesigns erforderlich. Insbesondere muss ein minimales Materialbudget erreicht werden. Die Herstellung eines Detektor-Moduls erfordert Aktivitaeten mit Bezug auf die Modul-Komponenten und deren Integration. Ein Detektor-Modul ist eine grundlegende funktionelle Einheit, die einen Sensor, ein Analogmikrokabel und Front-End-Elektronik umfasst, montiert auf einer Traegerstruktur. Das Ziel der Arbeit ist es, die Qualitaetssicherungstests der Prototyp-Modulkomponenten, zur Bestaetigung des Detektor-Modul-Konzeptes durchzufuehren, und um seinen Betrieb mit radioaktiven Quellen und Teilchenstrahlen zu demonstrieren. Die doppelseitigen Silizium-Mikrostreifendetektoren wurden als Sensortechnik fuer den STS, aufgrund der Kombination einer guten Ortsaufloesung, einer zweidimensionalen Koordinatenmessung mit geringem Materialbudget (0.3%X0), der hohen Auslesegeschwindigkeit und ausreichender Strahlungstoleranz gewaehlt. Mehrere Generationen von doppelseitigen Silizium-Mikrostreifendetektoren wurden zur Erkundung strahlenharter Konstruktionsmerkmale und des Konzepts, eines grossflaechigen Sensors und dessen Kompatibilitaet mit der Leiter-Struktur des Detektor-Moduls, hergestellt. Insbesondere wurden Sensoren mit doppelter Metallschicht auf beiden Seiten und aktivem Bereich von 62x62 mm2 produziert. Die elektrische Charakterisierung der Sensoren wurde durchgefuehrt, um die gesamte Bedienbarkeit sowie die Extrahierung der Geraeteparameter feststellen zu koennen. Strom und Kapazitaets-Spannungs-Charakteristiken sowie Interstreifenparameter wurden gemessen. Das Auslesen der Sensoren wurde mithilfe einer selbstgetriggerten Front-End-Elektronik getaetigt. Ein Front-End-Board wurde auf der Grundlage eines n-XYTER-Auslesechips mit datengesteuerter Architektur entwickelt, der geeignet ist bei Auslesegeschwindigkeit von 32MHz betrieben zu werden. Die Front-End-Platine enthaelt einen externen Analog-zu-Digital-Wandler (ADC). Die Kalibrierung des ADC wurde unter Verwendung von sowohl Roentgenquelle als auch eines Impulsgenerators vorgenommen. Die Schwellenkalibrierung und Untersuchung der Temperaturabhaengigkeit der Chip-Parameter wurden durchgefuehrt. Die ultraleichten Halterungsstrukturen wurden aus Kohlefaser entwickelt, diese haben die Steifigkeit, die Detektor-Module halten, und die minimale Coulomb-Streuung der Teilchenspuren einbeziehen zu koennen. Es wurden Analogmikrokabel mit Aluminiumleiterbahnen auf einem Polyimidsubstrat produziert - eine Kombination von guter elektrischer Verbindung und geringem Materialbudget. Die Mikrokabelstruktur umfasst mehrere Lagen optimiert fuer die niedrige Kapazitaet der Leiterbahnen und den damit verbundenen geraeuscharmen Betrieb. Es wurden Analog-Mikrokabel mit Aluminiumleiterbahnen auf einem Polyimidsubstrat produziert, also eine Kombination von guter elektrischer Verbindung und geringem Materialbudget. Die Mikrokabelstruktur umfasst mehrere Lagen optimiert fuer die niedrige Kapazitaet und den damit verbundenen geraeuscharmen Betrieb. Es wurde ein Demonstrator-Tracking-Teleskop gebaut und in mehreren Strahltests, einschliesslich 2.5 GeV Protonenstrahl an COSY (Juelich), betrieben. Drei Tracking-Stationen wurden mit Hodoskopen ergaenzt. Die Datenanalyse ergab Informationen ueber Analog- und Zeitverhalten sowie Strahlenprofil. So wurden Tracking- und Alignmentinformationen erhalten. Mit speziell entwickelten Monitoring-Tools wurde die Strahlstabilitaet bewertet. Als Ergebnis der Studien, wurde die Leistung der Modulkomponenten bewertet und die Anforderungen zum Detektormodul formuliert. Die genaue Definition des endgueltigen Detektormoduldesigns jedoch, war ausserhalb des Geltungsbereichs dieser Arbeit.The CBM experiment at future accelerator facility FAIR will investigate the properties of nuclear matter under extreme conditions. The experimental programm is different from the heavy-ion experiments at RHIC (BNL) and LHC (CERN) that create nuclear matter at high temperatures. In contrast, the study of the QCD phase diagram in the region of the highest net baryon densities and moderate temperatures that is weakly explored will be performed with high precision. For this, collisions of different heavy-ion beams at the energies of 10–45GeV/nucleon with nuclear target will be measured. The physics programme of the CBM experiment includes measurement of both rare probes and bulk observables that originate from various phases of a nucleus-nucleus collision. In particular, decay of particles with charm quarks can be registered by reconstructing the decay vertex detached from the primary interaction point by several hundreds of micrometers (e.g., decay length c Tau = 123 µm for D0 meson). For this, precise tracking and full event reconstruction with up to 600 charged particle tracks per event within acceptance are required. Other rare probes require operation at interaction rate of up to 10MHz. The detector system that performs tracking has to provide high position resolution on the order of 10 µm, operate at high rates and have radiation tolerant design with low material budget. The Silicon Tracking System (STS) is being designed for charged-particle tracking in a magnetic field. The system consists of eight tracking station located in the aperture of a dipole magnet with 1T field. For tracks with momentum above 1GeV, momentum resolution of such a system is expected to be about 1%. In order to fulfill this task, thorough optimization of the detector design is required. In particular, minimal material budget has to be achieved. Production of a detector module requires research and development activities with respect to the module components and their integration. A detector module is a basic functional unit that includes a sensor, an analogue microcable and frontend electronics mounted on a support structure. The objective of the thesis is to perform quality assurance tests of the prototype module components in order to validate the concept of the detector module and to demonstrate its operation using radioactive sources and particle beams. Double-sided silicon microstrip detectors have been chosen as sensor technology for the STS because of the combination of a good spatial resolution, two-dimensional coordinate measurement achieved within low material budget (0.3%X0), high readout speed and sufficient radiation tolerance. Several generations of double-sided silicon microstrip sensors have been manufactured in order to explore the radiation hard design features and the concept of a large-area sensor compatible with ladder-type structure of the detector module. In particular, sensors with double metal layer on both sides and active area of 62×62mm2 have been produced. Electrical characterization of the sensors has been performed in order to establish the overall operability as well as to extract the device parameters. Current-voltage, capacitance-voltage characteristics and interstrip parameters have been measured. Readout of the sensors has been done using self-triggering front-end electronics. A front-end board has been developed based on the n-XYTER readout chip with data driven architecture and capable of operating at 32MHz readout rate. The front-end board included an external analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Calibration of the ADC has been performed using both 241Am X-ray source and external pulse generator. Threshold calibration and investigation of temperature dependence of chip parameters has been carried out. Low-mass support structures have been developed using carbon fibre that has the rigidity to hold the detector modules and introduce minimal Coulomb scattering of the particle tracks. Analogue microcables have been produced with aluminium traces on a polyimide substrate, thus combining good electrical connection with low material budget. Microcable structure includes several layers optimized for low trace capacitance and thus low-noise performance. A demonstrator tracking telescope has been constructed and operated in several beam tests including 2.5GeV proton beam at COSY synchrotron (Jülich). Three tracking stations have been complemented with several beam hodoscopes. Analysis of the beam data has yielded information on analogue and timing response, beam profile. Tracking and alignment information has been obtained. Beam stability has been evaluated using specially developed monitoring tools. As a result of conducted studies, performance of the module components have been evaluated and requirements to the detector module have been formulated. Practical suggestions have been made with respect to the structure of the detector module, whereas precise definition of the final detector module design was outside of the scope of this thesis