Analyzing Trends in Material Culture Evolution—a Case Study of Gravettian Points from Lower Austria and Moravia

Identifying, analyzing, and explaining trends in the development of material culture is one of the major concerns in prehistoric archaeology. The traditional recording of data in typologies, however, is not optimal for answering the question of diachronic change because typological data capture variability poorly and are often incompatible with multivariate statistics. To overcome these problems, we present PyREnArA (Python-R-Environment for Artifact Analysis), a trait-based tool that allows for a systematic recording of diversity and variability in a way that is applicable to quantitative analysis and multivariate statistics. Using Gravettian assemblages from Lower Austria and Moravia as a case study, we analyze changes in the morphology as well as the design of lithic projectiles and statistically determine the amount of variation that correlates with the progression of time. We identify a slow trend towards slenderer and more pointed projectiles and a shift from laterally to latero-frontally hafted implements. Most of the analyzed traits, however, appear not to experience selective pressure and seem to be unrelated to the passage of time. We discuss these results with regard to different scales of selection, in particular individual choice vs. macroevolutionary group selection over longer periods of time and thus beyond the realm of individual intend, and we raise questions for future research

After the Revolution: A Review of 3D Modelling as a Tool for Stone Artefact Analysis

With over 200 peer-reviewed papers published over the last 20 years, 3D modelling is no longer a gimmick but an established and increasingly common analytical tool for stone artefact analysis. Laser and structured light scanning, photogrammetry, and CT scanning have all been used to model stone artefacts. These have been combined with a variety of different analytical approaches, from geometric morphometrics to custom reduction indices to digital elevation maps. 3D lithic analyses are increasingly global in scope and studies aim to address an ever-broadening breadth of research topics ranging from testing the functional efficiency of artefacts to assessing the cognitive capabilities of hominid populations. While the impact of the computational revolution on lithic analysis has been reviewed, the impact of 3D modelling on lithic analysis has yet to be comprehensively assessed. This paper presents a review of how 3D modelling in particular has impacted the field of stone artefact analysis. It combines a quantitative bibliometric analysis with a qualitative review to assess just how “revolutionary” 3D modelling has been for lithic analysis. It explores trends in the use of 3D modelling in stone artefact analysis, its impact on the wider lithic analysis field, and methodological, regional and theoretical gaps which future research projects could explore

Continuities and discontinuities during the late Middle Palaeolithic at the Oscurusciuto rock shelter (southern Italy). An integrated study of lithic manufacture in the strata SU 15, SU 14, SU 13 and SU 11.

Aquesta investigació té com a objectiu interpretar les variacions en la producció Neandertal, així com la funcionalitat de les eines de pedra mitjançant l'anàlisi de conjunts lítics dins l'últim Paleolític Mitjà del sud d'Itàlia. L'abric Oscurusciuto és clau per a la comprensió del comportament dels neandertals, ja que ofereix un dipòsit llarg i fiable, d'uns 6 m de profunditat, format per diversos nivells que oscil•len entre 42,724 ± 716 cal BP i 55 ± 2 kyrs (40Ar/39Ar). L’objectiu principal d'aquesta investigació és realitzar un estudi del conjunt d’eines de lítica, present a la secció inferior de la sèrie investigada fins ara en aquest jaciment: SU 15, SU 14, SU 13 i SU 11. Volem individualitzar, des d'un punt de vista diacrònic, les continuïtats i discontinuïtats d'aquests tecno-complexos lítics. Tenim la intenció d'aconseguir aquest objectiu a través d'un estudi integrat del material lític que permetrà una descripció del comportament econòmic relacionat amb l'explotació de les fonts de matèria primera lítica, seguit d'una descripció detallada de les fases de la seqüència de reducció, així com una definició de conceptes, mètodes, dinàmiques i objectius de la talla. Aquesta anàlisi tecnològica fonamental s'aplica als quatre nivells: SU 15, SU 14, SU 13 i SU 11. Basant-nos en les característiques del material recollit, s'han dut a terme diversos estudis: d’unitats de matèria primera (RMU) i de remuntatges per SU 13 i SU 14, per tal de comprendre millor la fragmentació de la cadena operativa. A més, s'ha desenvolupat un protocol tecno-funcional sobre un grup seleccionat de peces de la SEU 13, per tal d'aprofundir la nostra comprensió sobre la potencialitat les eines. Els resultats demostren que aquestes unitats estratigràfiques mostren peculiaritats específiques en termes de sistemes de producció lítica, elements estructurals, distribució espacial i tipus d'ocupació.Esta investigación tiene como objetivo interpretar las variaciones en la producción y la funcionalidad de herramientas de piedra de los Neandertales a través del análisis de los conjuntos líticos referibles a la última parte del Paleolítico Medio del sur de Italia. Un sitio clave para este propósito es el abrigo Oscurusciuto. Este es esencial para la comprensión del comportamiento de los Neandertales porque ofrece un depósito largo y confiable, de unos 6 m de profundidad. El mismo se encuentra formado por varios niveles que oscilan entre 42,724 ± 716 cal BP y 55 ± 2 kyrs (40Ar/39Ar). El propósito explícito de esta investigación es realizar un estudio integrado de las herramientas líticas presentes en la sección inferior de la serie hasta ahora investigada del abrigo Oscurusciuto: SU 15, SU 14, SU 13 y SU 11. Se pretende individualizar, desde un punto de vista diacrónico, las continuidades y discontinuidades de estos tecnocomplejos líticos. Para lograr este propósito se realizará un estudio integrado del material lítico, que permita una descripción del comportamiento económico relacionado con la explotación de las fuentes de materias primas líticas, una descripción detallada de las fases de la secuencia de reducción, así como también una definición de conceptos, métodos, dinámicas y objetivos del debitage. Este análisis tecnológico fundamental se aplica a los cuatro niveles. Considerando las características del material recogido, se han llevado a cabo estudios adicionales, como Unidades de Materia Prima (RMU) y remontajes para SU 13 y SU 14, con el fin de comprender mejor la fragmentación de la cadena operativa. Además, se ha desarrollado un protocolo tecno-funcional sobre un grupo seleccionado de piezas de SU 13, con el fin de profundizar nuestra comprensión de la potencialidad de las herramientas. Los resultados demuestran que estas unidades estratigráficas muestran peculiaridades específicas en términos de sistemas de producción lítica, elementos estructurales, manejo espacial y tipo de ocupación.This research aims to interpret the variations in the Neanderthal production and functionality of stone tools through analyses of lithic assemblages referable to the last Middle Palaeolithic of southern Italy. A key site for this purpose is the Oscurusciuto rock shelter, which is essential to the understanding of Neanderthal behaviour, as it offers a long, reliable deposit, about 6 m in depth, made up of several levels ranging between 42,724 ± 716 cal BP and 55 ± 2 kyrs (40Ar/39Ar). The explicit purpose of this research is to perform an integrated study of the lithic manufacture present in the lower section of the series so far investigated the Oscurusciuto rock shelter: SU 15, SU 14, SU 13 and SU 11. We want to individuate, from a diachronic point of view, the continuities and discontinuities of these lithic techno-complexes. We intend to achieve this purpose through an integrated study of the lithic material, which in turn allows for a description of the economic behaviour involved in the exploitation of the sources of lithic raw material, followed by a detailed description of the phases in the reduction sequence, as well as a definition of concepts, methods, dynamics and objectives of the debitage. This fundamental technological analysis is applied to all four levels: SU 15, SU 14, SU 13, and SU 11 (48,382 items). Based on the characteristics of the collected material, further studies have been undertaken, such as Raw Material Units plus refitting studies for SU 13 and SU 14, in order to better understand the fragmentation of the operative chain. Moreover, a techno-functional protocol has been developed regarding a selected group of pieces from SU 13, in order to deepen our comprehension of productional vs. functional tools. The results demonstrate that these stratigraphic units show specific peculiarities in terms of lithic production systems, structural elements, spatial management, and type of occupation

A critical assessment of the Aurignacian: Insights from Fumane Cave in northern Italy

The Early Upper Paleolithic marks a turning point in the history of human evolution. The cultural modifications that are observable in the European archaeological record are linked to a complex interaction of behavioral, environmental, and biological components that lead to the definitive colonization of Europe by modern humans, and the extinction and/or assimilation of autochthonous Neanderthal populations. Among the techno-complexes that characterize this period, the Aurignacian has received most of the attention because its development marks the consolidation of a set of cultural traits, such as long-distance mobility patterns, production of standardized lithic implements, variate organic artifacts, figurative arts, and personal ornaments made from a wide range of raw materials. However, research conducted in the last few decades has clearly shown that this portrait is more complex than previously thought. The Aurignacian itself, which is frequently described as the first pan-European techno-complex, is characterized by an important synchronic and diachronic variability that has probably been underestimated because of its direct association with the spread of modern humans into Europe. In this framework, regional studies and accurate re-evaluation of pivotal sites are fundamental in deconstructing the notion of the Aurignacian and achieving a better resolution of information for prehistoric times. The study of lithic industries remains the principle method of investigation for this period, although the growing field of archaeological sciences is enlarging the tools available to scientists to better interpret a distant world that will never be uncovered in all of its facets and details. Stone tools are thus the main focus of this thesis, although attention is also placed on other artifacts, such as ornamental objects and bone and antler tools, and in the stratigraphic reliability of the findings. Stone artifact assemblages recovered from five Early Upper Paleolithic cultural units at the site of Fumane Cave (Veneto, Italy) represent the main empirical basis of this doctoral thesis. Furthermore, the results are complemented by the analysis of two additional sites, Isturitz (Basque Country, France) and Les Cottés (Vienne, France), and by a systematic review of all sites containing early evidence of Aurignacian occupation. The study of lithic assemblages follows a holistic approach that aims to integrate and combine methods belonging to different research traditions, such as reduction sequence and attribute analysis. The main research questions of this thesis can be divided into two main topics that have been addressed in separate research projects, and are here combined to test the validity of the available reconstructions for the beginning and development of the Aurignacian. The first goal was to reassess the technological definition of the Protoaurignacian starting from an extensive analysis of the lithic assemblages recovered in units A2–A1 from Fumane Cave and further investigate the variability of the techno-complex across its geographic extent. Once the concept of the Protoaurignacian had been carefully revised, the second research phase aimed to describe the development of the Aurignacian in northern Italy by analyzing the whole Aurignacian sequence of Fumane Cave. The outcomes of this assessment were compared to the so-called “Aquitaine Model”, formulated in southwestern France, to test its applicability to the whole European extent. The first major topic evaluates the reliability of the common definition of Protoaurignacian technology. Results of the empirical investigation and the inter-site comparison confirm that the Protoaurignacian is an industry dominated by bladelet implements, although bladelet production is based on a broad range of reduction strategies that are not related to the dwindling core dimensions as blade production progressed. The dissociation of blade and bladelet productions is thus not only restricted to Early Aurignacian assemblages. Although rather homogeneous from a technological standpoint, the variability of retouched bladelets emphasizes the differences that exist between the Protoaurignacian regional groups. They are expected and, prior to drawing any conclusion, they need to be better evaluated in concert with data obtained from multi-disciplinary studies. The findings of the second research project reject the recurring practice, well-established among Paleolithic archaeologists, to transfer a regional model to geographically distant case studies. At Fumane Cave, the techno-typological features of the Protoaurignacian clearly persists throughout the stratigraphic sequence with some gradual variations that are, however, less distinct if compared to other sequences. Thus, both the “Aquitaine Model” and the idea according to which the Protoaurignacian vanished at the onset of the Heinrich 4 event are invalidated when applied to northern Italy. In conclusion, this thesis represents an important step towards a more dynamic understanding of the Aurignacian. The re-evaluation of pivotal sites and the definition of particular regional signatures are yielding new insights into the beginning and development of the Upper Paleolithic. The huge amount of work that needs to be done rests on the willingness of archaeologists to test the validity of the reconstructions proposed so far, starting from accurate reassessments of the available data and the identification of potential sites to be investigated following a holistic approach that the unstoppable development of the technium (intended as an interconnected system of technology vibrating around us: Kelly 2010) is more than ever demanding

Technological and geometric morphometric analysis of ‘post-Howiesons Poort points’ from Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Lithic assemblages immediately following the Howiesons Poort, often loosely referred to as the ‘post-Howiesons Poort’ or MSA III, have attracted relatively little attention when compared to other well-known phases of the South African Middle Stone Age (MSA) sequence. Current evidence from sites occurring in widely-differing environments suggests that these assemblages are marked by temporal and technological variability, with few features in common other than the presence of unifacial points. Here we present a technological and geometric morphometric analysis of ‘points’ from the new excavations of Members 2 BS, 2 WA and the top of 3 BS members at Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, one of the key sites for studying modern human cultural evolution. Our complementary methodologies demonstrate that, at this site, hominins adopted a knapping strategy that primarily produced non-standardised unretouched points. Triangular morphologies were manufactured using a variety of reduction strategies, of which the discoidal and Levallois recurrent centripetal methods produced distinctive morphologies. We find technological and morphological variability increases throughout the post-Howiesons Poort sequence, with clear differences between and within chrono-stratigraphic groups. Finally, we assess the suitability of the ‘Sibudan’ cultural-technological typology proposed for post-Howiesons Poort assemblages at Sibhudu, another KwaZulu-Natal site, and find similarities in the morphological axes characterising the samples, despite differences in the shaping strategies adopted. Overall, our work contributes to the growing body of research that is helping to address historical research biases that have slanted our understanding of cultural evolution during the MSA of southern Africa towards the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort technocomplexes.publishedVersio

Technological and geometric morphometric analysis of ‘post- Howiesons Poort points’ from Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Lithic assemblages immediately following the Howiesons Poort, often loosely referred to as the ‘post- Howiesons Poort’ or MSA III, have attracted relatively little attention when compared to other wellknown phases of the South African Middle Stone Age (MSA) sequence. Current evidence from sites occurring in widely-differing environments suggests that these assemblages are marked by temporal and technological variability, with few features in common other than the presence of unifacial points. Here we present a technological and geometric morphometric analysis of ‘points’ from the new excavations of Members 2 BS, 2WA and the top of 3 BS members at Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, one of the key sites for studying modern human cultural evolution. Our complementary methodologies demonstrate that, at this site, hominins adopted a knapping strategy that primarily produced non-standardised unretouched points. Triangular morphologies were manufactured using a variety of reduction strategies, of which the discoidal and Levallois recurrent centripetal methods produced distinctive morphologies. We find technological and morphological variability increases throughout the post-Howiesons Poort sequence, with clear differences between and within chrono-stratigraphic groups. Finally, we assess the suitability of the ‘Sibudan’ cultural-technological typology proposed for post-Howiesons Poort assemblages at Sibhudu, another KwaZulu-Natal site, and find similarities in the morphological axes characterising the samples, despite differences in the shaping strategies adopted. Overall, our work contributes to the growing body of research that is helping to address historical research biases that have slanted our understanding of cultural evolution during the MSA of southern Africa towards the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort technocomplexes.UK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC) NGS-54810R-19Wenner Gren Foundation CEOOP2020-1Poroulis grant through Cambridge UniversitySpanish FEDER/Ministry of Science and Innovation 262618National Geographic Explorer grant ANR-10-LABX-52DSI- NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences grant 191022_001Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence funding schemeLaScArBx research programmeGrand Programme de Recherche 'Human Past' of the Initiative d'Excellence (IdEx) of the Bordeaux UniversityLeakey Foundation (Movement, interaction, and structure: modelling population networks and cultural diversity in the African Middle Stone Age)Lithic Studies Society (Jacobi Bursary Awardee, 2020)SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE)Talents Programme AH/R012792/1 Gr. 10157 PID2019-1049449 GB-I0

Organização e variabilidade das indústrias líticas durante o Gravetense no Sudoeste Peninsular

Tese de doutoramento, Arqueologia, Faculdade de Ciências Humanas e Sociais, Universidade do Algarve, 2013A origem e expansão das indústrias gravetenses está associada às primeiras evidências claras de regionalismos tecno-culturais entre as primeiras comunidades de populações modernas no Ocidente europeu. Durante as últimas décadas, os modelos de organização e variabilidade das indústrias líticas têm sido vistos como reflexo do polimorfismo tecno-cultural que caracteriza o Gravetense. Tradicionalmente, a expansão das indústrias gravetenses no Sudoeste Peninsuar c.32 ka calBP tem sido visto como um processo uniforme, caracterizado pela ausência de uma significativa variabilidade regionale diacrônica. Contudo, os dados provenientes da última década de investigação evidenciam a presença de distintos fácies regionais e fases diacrónicas durante o Gravetense. Esta dissertação centra-se na variabilidade tecnológica e funcional das indústrias líticas durante o Gravetense no sudoeste da Península Ibérica, usando como casos de estudo indústrias líticas da fachada atlântica, Estremadura portuguesa e Sul de Portugal, e Sul de Espanha. A variabilidade das indústrias líticas, apresentada e discutida neste trabalho, evidencia a presença de diferentes fácies regionais e fases diacrónicas. Esta organização, associada com o início do evento climático Heinrich 3, é vista como o resultaldo dos fenómenos demográficos, technológicos, culturais e ecológicos que caracterizaram o comportamento humano durante o Gravetense no sudoeste peninsular

Technological Complexity as an Indicator of Behavioural Modernity A Case Study on Middle Palaeolithic Birch Tar Production and South African Microlithic Technology

Verhaltensmodernität als Konzept beschreibt die Spanne von Verhaltensweisen heutiger Menschen. In der Archäologie ist dieses Set von Verhalten mit der Frage verbunden, wann und wie sie entstanden sind. Der Begriff selbst reflektiert die erste konzise Konzeptualisierung von Verhaltensmodernität, die auch der Dichotomie von Verhalten anatomisch moderner Menschen und Neanderthalern beruhte. Die physischen Manifestationen von Verhalten, das als modern angesehen wurde, wurde in einer Liste zusammengefasst. Die dort aufgeführten Charakteristika umfassen eine technologische, eine symbolisch und eine organisatorische Dimension, wobei letzte in Mensch-Umwelt-Interaktion und die räumliche Organisation von Fundstellen weiter unterteilt werden kann. Die Debatte bewegte sich über die letzten vier Jahrzehnte weg von einem Ansatz, der die simple An- bzw. Abwesenheit bestimmter Merkmale von der Liste in der archäologischen Überlieferung als Evidenz für Verhaltensmodernität ansah. Die Merkmale der Liste sind jedoch immer noch von Bedeutung, da sie den archäologischen Befund mit dem Konzept der Verhaltensmodernität verbinden. Jedes Merkmal benötigt eine theoretische Rechtfertigung, um als physische Evidenz für modernes Verhalten in der Vergangenheit zu gelten. Diese Dissertation fokussiert auf zwei technologische Aspekte von Verhaltensmodernität – mikrolithische Technologie im südafrikanischen Middle Stone Age und Later Stone Age (MSA und LSA) sowie mittelpaläolithische Birkenpechherstellung. Mikrolithische Technologie und Birkenpech werden gemeinhin mit Kompositgeräten in Verbindung gebracht, welche auf Basis ihrer Komplexität als Marker für Verhaltensmodernität angesehen werden. Zusätzlich wurde angenommen, dass Birkenpech nur unter Sauerstoffabschluss entstehen kann, weswegen der Produktionsprozess selbst als komplex angesehen wird. Weiterhin wird die Überschneidung zwischen Steintechnologie und Symbolismus anhand der Standardisierung von Mikrolithen beleuchtet. Auf Basis von Steinartefakten der spätpleistozänen LSA-Schichten von Umbeli Belli, der Lamellen aus sechs Sibudan-Schichten und rückengestumpften Stücken aus vier Howiesons Poort-Schichten von Sibhudu (beide Südafrika), werden Fragen zum Ursprung des LSA und der Standardisierung von Steinartefakten im MSA erörtert. Dabei wird die postulierte Verbindung zwischen mikrolithischer Technologie und Verhaltensmodernität ebenso untersucht wie die Verbindung zwischen dem Aufkommen des LSA, welches manchmal mit dem regionalen Erscheinen von Verhaltensmodernität korreliert wird. Eine Serie von hauptsächlich experimentalarchäologischen Studien zu mittelpaläolithischer Birkenpechherstellung des Neanderthalers erkundet technologische Komplexität außerhalb des H. sapiens. Die Nutzung technologischer Komplexität als Marker für Verhaltensmodernität ist jedoch nicht unproblematisch. Zunächst ist Komplexität generell nicht leicht zu messen und im Besonderen nicht in archäologischen Kontexten. Weiterhin, selbst unter der Voraussetzung ein „korrektes“ Maß für Komplexität anzuwenden, ist der errechnete Wert ohne Kontextualisierung bedeutungslos. Daher muss Komplexität immer mindestens einen weiteren Referenzpunkt haben und dieser ist oft willkürlich gewählt. Zuletzt benötig es eine theoretische Basis, um technologische Komplexität mit Verhaltensmodernität zu verknüpfen. Diese theoretische Verknüpfung muss darauf abzielen, diejenigen kognitiven Mechanismen zu identifizieren, die der Beobachtung in der archäologischen Überlieferung zugrunde liegen. Die theoretische Rechtfertigung, ein Verhalten als modern zu klassifizieren, überschneidet sich dabei mit der Erklärung für das Verhalten selbst. Die in dieser Dissertation vorgestellten Daten werden unter den drei erwähnten Paradigmen untersucht und ihre Eignung als Proxymarker für Verhaltensmodernität untersucht. Die Dissertation präsentiert neue Daten zu drei verschiedenen Charakteristika, die als Indikatoren für Verhaltensmodernität angesehen werden und evaluiert, ob diese Charakteristika als solche angesehen werden können und warum beziehungsweise warum nicht. Sowohl mikrolithische Technologie als auch Birkenpechherstellung sind als Marker für ein Konzept von Verhaltensmodernität geeignet, das eine technologische Dimension einschließt. Für Mikrolithen ist dies auf Basis ihrer Nutzung in Kompositgeräten der Fall, für Birkenpech aufgrund der Komplexität seiner Herstellung. Während die Standardisierung von Steinartefakten sehr wohl Planung und Regularität in der Produktion anzeigt, ist sie als Marker für symbolisches Verhalten nicht geeignet. In den letzten Jahrzehnten haben manche Forscher für eine Aufgabe des Konzepts der Verhaltensmoderne plädiert. Während eine Überarbeitung und Weiterentwicklung des Konzepts weiterhin notwendig ist, scheint eine komplette Aufgabe indes unnötig. Ein Konzept von Verhaltensmodernität, das so viele Aspekte wie möglich einschließt kann mit jüngeren Fortschritten auf den Gebieten der kumulativen Kultur oder der Extended Evolutionary Synthesis verbunden werden. Weiterhin eröffnen Fortschritte in unseren Möglichkeiten jene Aspekte vergangener Gesellschaften zu modellieren, die für die Erklärung des Entstehens von Komplexität von Bedeutung sind, spannende neue Möglichkeiten bei der Beantwortung der Frage wann und wie der Mensch so wurde wie wir.Behavioural modernity is a concept that describes the range of behaviours found in modern humans today. As far as archaeology is concerned with this set of behaviours it is sometimes paraphrased as the question when humans became ‘like us’ and ultimately also how. The term itself is a remnant of the first concise conceptualization which rested on the dichotomy between behaviours displayed by anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals. The physical manifestations of the behaviours that were perceived to be modern were summarized in a list of traits. These traits encompass a technological, a symbolic and an organizational dimension, the latter of which can be further subdivided into human interactions with the environment and spatial organization of sites. Over the past four decades the debate has moved past a simple list-based presence/absence approach, in order to identify modern behaviour in the archaeological record. However, the items on the list still matter because they represent the physical remnants of past behaviours and are therefore connect the archaeological record with the concept of behavioural modernity. A theoretical justification has to be made for each item on the list, in order to see if the physical evidence can be used as an indicator for modern behaviour in the past. This thesis focusses on two technological aspects of behavioural modernity – microlithic technology in the South African Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age (MSA and LSA) and Middle Palaeolithic birch tar production. Microlithic technology and birch tar are commonly connected with composite tools, which is thought to be a marker of behavioural modernity based on their complexity. Additionally, it was thought that birch tar only forms under oxygen-restricted conditions. Hence, the production process itself was thought to be complex as well. Furthermore, the intersection between stone artefact technology and symbolism is examined by a study on the standardization of microliths. Drawing on lithic artefacts from the Late Pleistocene LSA layers of Umbeli Belli as well as bladelets from six Sibudan layers and backed pieces from four Howiesons Poort layers from Sibhudu (both South Africa), questions about the emergence of the LSA, and artefacts standardization in the MSA are examined. These studies target the presumed link between microlithic technology and behavioural modernity as well as the emergence of the LSA which is sometimes equalled with the regional emergence of behavioural modernity. Moving past H. sapiens, a series of predominantly experimental studies on Middle Palaeolithic birch tar production are used to explore technological complexity in Neanderthals. Using technological complexity as a marker for behavioural modernity is not without issues. Firstly, complexity is not easily measured in general, but particularly not in the archaeological record. Secondly, even if we agreed upon a ‘correct’ measurement complexity is always relative and the resulting value meaningless if not compared to at least one other value. Therefore, measuring complexity calls for a reference point for comparison and this is reference point is chosen notoriously arbitrary. Thirdly, linking technological complexity and behavioural modernity requires a theoretical basis that seeks to identify the underlying cognitive processes necessary to create the observed outcome in the archaeological record. Here, the theoretical justification for a behaviour to be indicative of modernity intersects with potential explanations for its presence. The data presented in the thesis are explored under these paradigms, in order to review their suitability as proxy markers for behavioural modernity. In conclusion, this thesis presents novel data on three different cultural traits that are thought to indicate behavioural modernity. It also provides an evaluation if these traits can be regarded as behaviourally modern and why or why not. Both microlithic technology and birch tar production are suitable markers of a concept of behavioural modernity that includes technological aspects alongside symbolic ones. Microliths because of their use in composite tools and birch tar because of the complexity of its production. While the standardization of lithic artefacts reflects planning and regularity in their production, they are not suitable markers for symbolic behaviour. In the past decades, some researchers have called for the abandonment of behavioural modernity as a concept. And while it needs to be developed and transformed a complete abandonment seems unnecessary. A concept of behavioural modernity that encompasses as many aspects as possible can be tied to recent research in the fields of cumulative culture or Extended Evolutionary Synthesis. Furthermore, advancements in our ability to model some aspects of past societies that are critical to explain complexity provide interesting avenues for future scientific inquiry in when and how past hominins became like us

Tecnologia lítica proto-solutrense no oeste da Ibéria: os sítios de Vale Boi e Lapa do Picareiro

The present study aims to answer the question: what impact did the Heinrich event 2 have on the technological organization of human communities, at the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum, in south western Iberia? The impact of this event on the Gravettian-Solutrean transition has been previously suggested (Bradtmöller et al. 2012). However, the existing models do not consider the Proto-Solutrean technocomplex as an individual phase for this transition (Cascalheira & Bicho 2013). To address this question, this study analysed the lithic assemblages from Layers 5 and 4E of the site of Vale Boi (southern Portugal) and Levels U and T from Lapa do Picareiro (central Portugal). We aimed to understand the technological patterns and raw material exploitation during the Proto-Solutrean, and test the existing models with assemblages from recently excavated sites, while expanding the geographic range. The analysis followed a technological attributes approach. The retrieved data was fully analysed in R environment. Results show the existence of two discrete phases in each site. The first, with high frequency of quartz use for bladelet production, seems to reflect the presence, in both sites, of a Terminal Gravettian horizon, as defined by Almeida (2000). The second, with some significant differences between sites, attests the presence of Vale Comprido technology and lower quartz frequencies at Vale Boi, representing a Proto-Solutrean occupation; and the presence of a blade component in Lapa do Picareiro that, together with the respective absolute chronology, may attributed to a Proto-Solutrean or an Early Solutrean horizon. In general terms, this study allowed to confirm that the Terminal Gravettian and the Proto-Solutrean are discrete phases across the transiton, in concordance with the Three-Phase model presented by Zilhão (1997a). It further consolidates the expansion of similar techno-cultural patterns to southern Portugal, that may be explained by the expansion of social networks (Cascalheira & Bicho 2013). Associated with the dominance of different technological patterns and intensive use of quartz, we may understand these horizons as a moment of cultural reorganization, onset by environmental pressures.Heinrich 2 (HE 2) na (re)organização tecnológica das comunidades de caçadoresrecolectores no início do Último Máximo Glacial (UMG), no sudoeste Peninsular? Esta questão está intimamente ligada ao entendimento de certos eventos climáticos abruptos, tais como os eventos de Heinrich, com a substituição de culturas ao longo do Paleolítico Superior (Bradtmöller et al. 2012). Um destes momentos de substituição correlaciona a passagem entre os tecnocomplexos Gravetense e Solutrense com o evento HE 2, no ínicio do UMG. Neste paradigma, as mudanças climáticas desencadeiam mudanças sociais, através do colapso de tradições que depois são reorganizadas, de forma a corresponder às novas condições ambientais e paisagísticas. No entanto, nos modelos existentes, o Proto-Solutrense não surge como um tecnocomplexo individualizado, existindo assim uma lacuna no entendimento atual do processo de transição entre os dois horizontes culturais supramencionados (Cascalheira & Bicho 2013). O Proto-Solutrense, representado sobretudo na Estremadura Portuguesa, é entendido como um tecnocomplexo de transição, ocorrendo entre os 26 300 cal BP e 25 400 cal BP, e caracterizado por mudanças na tecnologia e preferência de matérias-primas, existindo dois modelos para a sua evolução: modelo em duas etapas e modelo em três etapas (Zilhão 1997a). O modelo em duas etapas considera a existência de um Gravetense Final e de um Proto-Solutrense, este último caracterizado pelo uso intensivo de quartzo, estratégias de produção para obtenção de lamelas em núcleos carenados e obtenção de suportes convergentes para pontas de Vale Comprido. O modelo em três etapas consiste na evolução do Gravetense Final para uma etapa intermédia (no modelo das duas etapas considerada uma fácies funcional do Proto-Solutrense), caracterizada pelo uso intensivo do quartzo, estratégias de redução para obtenção de lamelas em núcleos carenados, seguida de uma fase proto-solutrense caracterizada pela diminuição do uso do quartzo e estratégias de redução para obtenção de suportes convergentes para pontas de Vale Comprido. O conhecimento atual do Proto-Solutrense apresenta-se truncado, no entanto, pela antiguidade de algumas escavações e a sua restrição geográfica à Estremadura Portuguesa. De forma a responder à questão supramencionada, assim como contribuir para o conhecimento do Proto-Solutrense no sudoeste Peninsular, foram analisados os conjuntos líticos das camadas 5 e 4E do sítio arqueológico de Vale Boi (sul de Portugal) e das camadas U e T da Lapa do Picareiro (centro de Portugal), ambos escavados nos últimos 20 anos com recurso às mais recentes tecnologias de recolha de dados. Esta análise teve a finalidade de entender os padrões tecnológicos e de exploração do território durante a transição, através dos seguintes objetivos: 1) entender e explicar os padrões tecnológicos e de preferência de matérias-primas intra-sítio; 2) entender a existência de fases dentro das coleções estudadas; 3) testar os modelos de transição existentes para a Estremadura e entender possíveis variações geográficas. A análise seguiu uma abordagem de atributos tecnológicos e morfológicos, com base em estudos aplicados a coleções do Paleolítico Superior, e seguindo os conceitos definidos na literatura especializada (e.g. Tixier, 1980; 1963; Andrefsky, 1998; Inizan, 1999). Esta foi seguida de uma fase de tratamento estatístico através de estatística descritiva efetuada em ambiente R. A escrita da tese foi também realizada em R. Os resultados permitiram individualizar duas fases dentro de ambos os contextos: • uma fase mais antiga (em torno dos 27 ka cal BP na Lapa do Picareiro, e dos 26 ka cal BP em Vale Boi), atribuída ao Gravetense Terminal, presente nas camadas U e T inferior da Lapa do Picareiro, e nos niveís inferiores da camada 5 de Vale Boi - Terraço. Esta fase aparece caracterizada pelo uso extensivo de quartzo (~50%), maioritariamente para a obtenção de lamelas. Apesar de em ambos os sítios não ter sido detectada a presença de raspadeiras carenadas ou elementos carenados, típicos do Gravetense Terminal (Almeida 2000), a presença de lamelas de perfil encurvado intui para a utilização desta estratégia de redução. • uma fase mais recente (em torno dos 25 ka cal BP e dos 24 ka cal BP em Vale Boi) e com características ligeiramente distintas nos dois sítios, presente nos níveis centrais da camada T da Lapa do Picareiro, e no topo da camada 5 e camada 4E de Vale Boi. As diferenças inter-sítio permitem atribuir estas ocupações ao Proto-Solutrense em Vale Boi, mas levantam dúvidas quanto à atribuição na Lapa do Picareiro. Esta fase é caracterizada pela diminuição do uso de quartzo (continuando, no entanto, com uma frequência de ~30%) e aparecimento, em Vale Boi de uma sequência de redução para obtenção de suportes de tipo Vale Comprido, e na Lapa do Picareiro a presença de suportes com algumas características semelhantes (suportes alongados de bordos convergentes, marcados por negativos dorsais unidirecionais e plataformas simples), mas com algumas diferenças, tais como índices de carenagem baixos, levantando dúvidas quanto à sua atribuição a esquemas tecnológicos de Vale Comprido. De forma geral os resultados obtidos permitem sugerir que o modelo em três fases é aquele que melhor se adequa aos sítios estudados, sendo que a datação da ocupação mais recente da Lapa do Picareiro poderá, no entanto, representar uma fase de transição entre o Proto-Solutrense e o Solutrense Médio, uma fase ainda por identificar em Portugal (Zilhão 1997a)