An acoustic-phonetic approach to speech recognition : application to the semivowels

Originally presented as author's thesis (Ph. D.-- Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 1987.Bibliography: p. 203-207.Supported by the Xerox Corporation.Carol Yvonne Espy-Wilson

A phonological study on English loanwords in Mandarin Chinese

The general opinion about the way English borrowings enter Mandarin is that English words are preferably integrated into Mandarin via calquing, which includes a special case called Phonetic-Semantic Matching (PSM) (Zuckermann 2004), meaning words being phonetically assimilated and semantically transferred at the same time. The reason for that is that Mandarin is written in Chinese characters, which each has a single-syllable pronunciation and a self-contained meaning, and the meaning achieved by the selection of characters may match the original English words. There are some cases which are agreed by many scholars to be PSM. However, as this study demonstrates, the semantics of the borrowing and the original word do not really match, the relation considered to be “artificial” by Novotná (1967). This study analyses a corpus of 600 established English loanwords in Mandarin to test the hypothesis that semantic matching is not a significant factor in the loanword adaptation process because there is no semantic relation between the borrowed words and the characters used to record them. To measure the phonological similarity between the English input and the Mandarin output, one of the models in adult second language perception, the Perceptual Assimilation Model (Best 1995a), is used as the framework to judge the phonemic matching between the English word and the adapted Mandarin outcome. The meanings of the characters used in recording the loanwords are referred in The Dictionary of Modern Chinese to see whether there are cases of semantic matching. The phonotactic adaptation of illicit sound sequences is also analysed in Optimality Theory (McCarthy 2002) to give an account of phonetic-phonological analysis of the adaptation process. Thus, the percentage of Phono-Semantic Matching is obtained in the corpus. As the corpus investigation shows, the loanwords that can match up both the phonological and the semantic quality of the original words are very few. The most commonly acknowledged phono-semantic matching cases are only phonetic loanwords. In conclusion, this paper argues that the semantic resource of Chinese writing system is not used as a major factor in the integration of loanwords. Borrowing between languages with different writing systems is not much different than borrowing between languages with same writing system or without a writing system. Though Chinese writing system interferes with the borrowing, it is the linguistic factors that determine the borrowing process and results. Chinese characters are, by a large proportion, conventional graphic signs with a phonetic value being the more significant factor in loanword integration process

Loan Phonology

For many different reasons, speakers borrow words from other languages to fill gaps in their own lexical inventory. The past ten years have been characterized by a great interest among phonologists in the issue of how the nativization of loanwords occurs. The general feeling is that loanword nativization provides a direct window for observing how acoustic cues are categorized in terms of the distinctive features relevant to the L1 phonological system as well as for studying L1 phonological processes in action and thus to the true synchronic phonology of L1. The collection of essays presented in this volume provides an overview of the complex issues phonologists face when investigating this phenomenon and, more generally, the ways in which unfamiliar sounds and sound sequences are adapted to converge with the native language’s sound pattern. This book is of interest to theoretical phonologists as well as to linguists interested in language contact phenomena

The principle of least effort within the hierarchy of linguistic preferences: external evidence from English

The thesis is an investigation of the principle of least effort (Zipf 1949 [1972]). The principle is simple (all effort should be least) and universal (it governs the totality of human behavior). Since the principle is also functional, the thesis adopts a functional theory of language as its theoretical framework, i.e. Natural Linguistics. The explanatory system of Natural Linguistics posits that higher principles govern preferences, which, in turn, manifest themselves as concrete, specific processes in a given language. Therefore, the thesis’ aim is to investigate the principle of least effort on the basis of external evidence from English. The investigation falls into the three following strands: the investigation of the principle itself, the investigation of its application in articulatory effort and the investigation of its application in phonological processes. The structure of the thesis reflects the division of its broad aims. The first part of the thesis presents its theoretical background (Chapter One and Chapter Two), the second part of the thesis deals with application of least effort in articulatory effort (Chapter Three and Chapter Four), whereas the third part discusses the principle of least effort in phonological processes (Chapter Five and Chapter Six). Chapter One serves as an introduction, examining various aspects of the principle of least effort such as its history, literature, operation and motivation. It overviews various names which denote least effort, explains the origins of the principle and reviews the literature devoted to the principle of least effort in a chronological order. The chapter also discusses the nature and operation of the principle, providing numerous examples of the principle at work. It emphasizes the universal character of the principle from the linguistic field (low-level phonetic processes and language universals) and the non-linguistic ones (physics, biology, psychology and cognitive sciences), proving that the principle governs human behavior and choices. Chapter Two provides the theoretical background of the thesis in terms of its theoretical framework and discusses the terms used in the thesis’ title, i.e. hierarchy and preference. It justifies the selection of Natural Linguistics as the thesis’ theoretical framework by outlining its major assumptions and demonstrating its explanatory power. As far as the concepts of hierarchy and preference are concerned, the chapter provides their definitions and reviews their various understandings via decision theories and linguistic preference-based theories. Since the thesis investigates the principle of least effort in language and speech, Chapter Three considers the articulatory aspect of effort. It reviews the notion of easy and difficult sounds and discusses the concept of articulatory effort, overviewing its literature as well as various understandings in a chronological fashion. The chapter also presents the concept of articulatory gestures within the framework of Articulatory Phonology. The thesis’ aim is to investigate the principle of least effort on the basis of external evidence, therefore Chapters Four and Six provide evidence in terms of three experiments, text message studies (Chapter Four) and phonological processes in English (Chapter Six). Chapter Four contains evidence for the principle of least effort in articulation on the basis of experiments. It describes the experiments in terms of their predictions and methodology. In particular, it discusses the adopted measure of effort established by means of the effort parameters as well as their status. The statistical methods of the experiments are also clarified. The chapter reports on the results of the experiments, presenting them in a graphical way and discusses their relation to the tested predictions. Chapter Four establishes a hierarchy of speakers’ preferences with reference to articulatory effort (Figures 30, 31). The thesis investigates the principle of least effort in phonological processes, thus Chapter Five is devoted to the discussion of phonological processes in Natural Phonology. The chapter explains the general nature and motivation of processes as well as the development of processes in child language. It also discusses the organization of processes in terms of their typology as well as the order in which processes apply. The chapter characterizes the semantic properties of processes and overviews Luschützky’s (1997) contribution to NP with respect to processes in terms of their typology and incorporation of articulatory gestures in the concept of a process. Chapter Six investigates phonological processes. In particular, it identifies the issues of lenition/fortition definition and process typology by presenting the current approaches to process definitions and their typology. Since the chapter concludes that no coherent definition of lenition/fortition exists, it develops alternative lenition/fortition definitions. The chapter also revises the typology of phonological processes under effort management, which is an extended version of the principle of least effort. Chapter Seven concludes the thesis with a list of the concepts discussed in the thesis, enumerates the proposals made by the thesis in discussing the concepts and presents some questions for future research which have emerged in the course of investigation. The chapter also specifies the extent to which the investigation of the principle of least effort is a meaningful contribution to phonology

Sociololinguistic competence and the bilingual's adoption of phonetic variants: auditory and instrumental data from English-Arabic bilinguals

This study is an auditory and acoustic investigation of the speech production patterns developed by English-Arabic bilingual children. The subjects are three Lebanese children aged five, seven and ten, all born and raised in Yorkshire, England. Monolingual friends of the same age were chosen as controls, and the parents of all bilingual and monolingual children were also taped to obtain a detailed assessment of the sound patterns available in the subjects' environment. The study addresses the question of interaction between the bilingual's phonological systems by calling for a refinement of the notion of a `phonological system' using insights from recent phonetic and sociolinguistic work on variability in speech (e. g. Docherty, Foulkes, Tillotson, & Watt, 2002; Docherty & Foulkes, 2000; Local, 1983; Pisoni, 1997; Roberts, 1997; Scobbie, 2002). The variables under study include /1/, In, and VOT production. These were chosen due to the existence of different patterns in their production in English and Arabic that vary according to contextual and dialectal factors. Data were collected using a variety of picture-naming, story-telling, and free-play activities for the children, and reading lists, story-telling, and interviews for the adults. To control for language mode (Grosjean, 1998), the bilinguals were recorded in different language sessions with different interviewers. Results for the monolingual children and adults in this study underline the importance of including controls in any study of bilingual speech development for a better interpretation of the bilinguals' patterns. Input from the adults proved highly variable and at times conflicted with published patterns normally found in the literature for the variables under study. Results for the bilinguals show that they have developed separate sociolinguistically-appropriate production patterns for each of their languages that are on the whole similar to those of monolinguals but that also reflect the bilinguals' rich socio-phonetic repertoire. The interaction between the bilinguals' languages is mainly restricted to the bilingual mode and is a sign of their developing sociolinguistic competence

Stabilizing Forces in Acoustic Cultural Evolution: Comparing Humans and Birds

Learned acoustic communication systems, like birdsong and spoken human language, can be described from two seemingly contradictory perspectives. On one hand, learned acoustic communication systems can be remarkably consistent. Substantive and descriptive generalizations can be made which hold for a majority of populations within a species. On the other hand, learned acoustic communication systems are often highly variable. The degree of variation is often so great that few, if any, substantive generalizations hold for all populations in a species. Within my dissertation, I explore the interplay of variation and uniformity in three vocal learning species: budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), and humans (Homo sapiens). Budgerigars are well-known for their versatile mimicry skills, house finch song organization is uniform across populations, and human language has been described as the prime example of variability by some while others see only subtle variations of largely uniform system. For each of these species, I address several questions related to variability and uniformity: What is the typical range of variation? What are the limits of variation? How are those two issues related? And what mechanisms underlie variability and uniformity? In chapter 3, I investigate a potential domain of uniformity in budgerigar warble: the segment. Segments, units divided by acoustic transitions rather than silence, have been largely ignored in non-human animal communication. I find that budgerigars can achieve a high degree of complexity and variability by combining and arranging these small, more stereotyped units. Furthermore, I find that budgerigar segment organization is not only consistent across independent budgerigar populations but is consistent with patterns found in human language. In chapter 4, I investigate variability in house finch song. I present data showing that house finches learn sound patterns which are absent in wild house finch populations. These data suggest that cross-population variation in house finch song is narrower than what is permitted by the house finch song learning program. Finally, in chapter 5, I focus on human language, the most well-described communication system. Here, I research a sound pattern that is absent in the majority of known languages. I find that the rare pattern has independently developed at least six times. In every case, the historical pathway which led to the rare pattern was the same. The historical development in these six linguistic lineages suggests that the overall rarity of the sound pattern is the result of acoustic similarity. These data illuminate the evolutionary forces that give rise to, and limit, variation. The results of this dissertation have wide-ranging implications, from necessary revisions of linguistic theories, to understanding epigenetic interactions, to the application of evolutionary theory to complex behavior. While these projects within the dissertation are all different, evidence from all three projects support the following claims: (i) cross-population commonality is not evidence for what a species is able to learn; (ii) peripheral mechanisms have a strong influence in limiting cross-population variability; and (iii) high degrees of variation can emerge from uniform traits

Linguistic change in a nonstandard dialect: phonological studies in the history of English in Ireland

It is not my aim to write a unified history of the English language an Ireland, since this has already been undertaken elsewhere (e.g. Hogan 1927; Bliss 1977,1979; Barry 1982). Rather I wish to concentrate on several specifically phonological developments which allow us to disentangle the competing but sometimes complementary influences exerted by Irish, English and Scots on Hiberno-English (henceforth HE). This emphasis reflects an attempt not only to chart the historical developments in greater detail than has been done hitherto but also to contribute to our theoretical understanding of phonological change. For various reasons the focus is for the most part on northern HE. For one thing, a detailed history of southern HE is already available (Bliss 1979). Secondly, much of my own research has been undertaken in the north, particularly while I was working on the project Sociolinguistic variation and linguistic change in Belfast M Milroy et al 1983). Most importantly, however, northern HE with its mixed linguistic heritage offers a rich and relatively untapped source of data for investigating the extent to which dialect contact may be implicated in phonological change. Despite the emphasis on northern HE, I draw on comparative material from southern dialects throughout the following pages. It is often remarked that, in contrast to the relative homogeneity of southern BE, the linguistic situation in the north of Ireland is quite varied (e. g. Adams 1977: 56). In fact Adam (1973) finds it convenient to recognise at least seven basic northern varieties spoken in an area with a population of just under two million. This diversity is in part a reflection of the complex interaction of Scots and English influences in the north, in addition to the contribution of Irish which has left its mark to varying degrees on all types of HE. It is the Scots element in particular that distinguishes much of northern from southern BE. Almost everything that has ever been written on HE stresses the supposed effects of Irish Gaelic contact with English on its development. I take up this issue in a treatment of HE consonant phonology in Chapter 3 and give it more detailed attention elsewhere in a discussion of the growth and structure of the HE verb phrase (Harris 1982). Although this is clearly an important area, it has been much discussed and it is not my intention to go over the sane ground here. Rather the focus in this thesis is on two other aspects of language contact in the north of Ireland. Firstly, I examine the linguistic developments that have arisen from contact between the typologically divergent phonological systems of English and Scots dialects. Secondly, I attempt to isolate several changes which reflect contact between nonstandard HE and modern standard British varieties. In Chapter 1 I describe the main types of northern HE that can be identified according to the different ways in which the tensions between English and Scots influences have been resolved. The conditions of contact are in many ways similar to those that obtained in the early stages of British settlement in North America. It therefore comes as no surprise to discover close linguistic parallels between certain United States and Canadian dialects on the one hand and northern HE on the other. These similarities also reflect the fact that the major British colonisation of Ireland was roughly contemporary with that of. North America. Hibernian and American dialects of English display many common seventeenth-century features which have since been lost from standard British varieties. The tension between Scots and English influences in northern HE manifests itself most clearly in the area of vowel phonology. Some dialects display a typically English system in which vowel length is phonemic. That is, in these varieties it is possible to identify one subsystem of inherently long vowels and another of inherently short vowels. In characteristically Scots dialects, on the other hand, vowel length is to a large extent phonetically conditioned. Between these two types lies a range of 'mixed' dialects which show varying degrees of compromise between phonemic and positional length. The diffusion of the English and Scots length patterns across different dialects, vowels and phonological environments can be expressed in term of implicational hierarchies which I set up in Chapter 2.I also examine the phonetic facts which can plausibly be said to deternine the order of segment-types on the hierarchies. In Chapter 3, Iattempt a partial. reconstruction of the internal history of the urban HE vernacular spoken in Belfast. By inspecting present-day sociolinguistic variation for signs of change in progress and checking the results against historical records, it is possible to identify the main phonological developments that have occurred over the last century or so. Comparative material from the city's rural hinterland dialects and from the descendants of the original British source dialects allows us to chart the continuing competition between English and Scots linguistic features. It is also possible to offer a fairly clear picture of the sorts of adaptive change that have been taking place in the vernacular as a result of contact with external standard norms. Thanks to its conservative nature, HE provides the historical phonologist with an invaluable store of archaic patterns of distribution which were once current in Early Modern English but which have since disappeared from standard varieties. Through direct observation of this material it is possible to gain new insights into some of the well-known problematical issues of English historical phonology. One of these, which I take up in Chapter 4, concerns the fate of Middle English (ME) /6: / (as in meat) in Southern Standard English. According to some interpretations, it merged with ME /a: / (as in mate), only to reseparate and undergo merger with ME /e: / (as in meet). Belfast Vernacular is one of several modern dialects in which these vowels remain three-way distinct. Comparative reconstruction of the changes that have produced the current reflexes in these dialects contributes to our understanding of what might have happened to M /ɛ:/ in the Southern Standard. In addition, the results have a bearing on the wider issue of the sorts of strategy that can be : implemented to avoid merger during chain-shifting. In Chapter 5,1 examine the other side of the coin. I identify different ways in which phonological merger is achieved and suggest how these might be modelled in terms of rules and representations. I take up the issue of falsely reported mergers and discuss some of the theoretical and methodological implications. It is a commonly held belief that there is a general trend towards dialect convergence in English as a result of the standardising pressures exerted by universal education and the media. However, recent sociolinguistic work suggests that, while old rural dialects may be in decline, diversification is continuing in recently evolved urban vernaculars (see Labov 1972a: 324; 1980a: 252). A survey of the changes that have affected Belfast Vernacular over the last 120 years or so does indeed confirm that a degree of standardisation has taken place. However, this has been restricted for the most part to the lexical incidence of phonemes. At the phonological level, almost no major structural alignment with Southern Standard English has taken place. Indeed, evidence from change in progress suggests that sane internal innovations are actually moving in directions which run counter to standard norm