Position specific differences in activity in club level sevens rugby players : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Sport & Exercise Science at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand

The increase in popularity of seven-a-side rugby through the World Sevens Series has increased the need for training programmes to be developed specifically for the seven-a-side game. The aim of this thesis was to use time motion analysis to gather and compare data on match play variables in club sevens rugby, and interpret the results to construct effective guidelines for game-specific sevens rugby training. The first step in programme development was to identify the specific demands of sevens rugby, and then determine the best way for these demands to be replicated through training. Time motion analysis was used to identify the specific physiological demands of club-level game play. These demands included distances travelled, average speeds, the percentage of game time spent in different gaits and exercise intensities, and the number of activities and events performed per game half. The data were used to make comparisons between positional groups (forwards, backs, halfback), between game halves, and between pool and final games. There were no significant differences found between positional groups, game halves or game type, which implies that all players in sevens should train in the same way. The average distance covered per half was 0.77km, with 9% of the game spent in passive rest, 81% spent in active recovery and 10% spent in high-intensity running, equating to an average work to rest ratio of 1:9. Each player performed an average of 12 activities per half. Only half of the passes received resulted in a continuation of passing, the other half of balls received were either taken into a tackle or fumbled. The execution of activities at training should focus on maintaining possession of the ball at set plays and breakdowns, and using movement of the ball and players to create space to break through the defensive line and score a try. This can be achieved by working on game-specific skills, and may include executing these skills in a fatigued state to simulate the requirements of game play. Game-based fitness training should focus on the development of both aerobic power and anaerobic capacity, with special emphasis on the development of the lactate energy system through repeated-speed training. Work to rest ratios of 1:9 reflect club level game play, and are suggested as the standard for training at club level. To create overload and increase training response, smaller work to rest ratios (eg 1:3) may be used. Training which specifically focuses on the development of acceleration, top-end speed, agility, and strength should also be implemented as these attributes have been identified as critical components for successful sevens players. These results suggest that sevens rugby players require game-specific, rather than position-specific, training to promote maximal transfer to game performance

“MAKE SOMEONE LOVE SOMETHING AND SHARE YOUR PASSION”: PERCEPTIONS OF COACH CARING AMONGST ELITE WOMEN’S RUGBY SEVENS ATHLETES

Previous researchers have explored the effects of caring (see Noddings, 1992) on self-efficacy, motivation, and, ultimately, performance in physical activity contexts (e.g., Gano-Overway et al., 2009). However, the construct of coach caring has only recently been explored with coaches at the U.S. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I (DI) level (Fisher et al., 2017a, 2017b; Knust & Fisher, 2015). Results suggest that DI coaches define caring as fostering strong relationships, providing athletes with everything they need to succeed, and developing the whole person for life outside of sport. Since DI coaches believe that coach caring can lead to greater performance, a logical next step was to explore student-athletes’ perceptions of coach caring at the elite level. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore elite women’s rugby sevens athletes’ perceptions of coach caring. At this level, each athlete is striving to become a member of the USA women’s rugby team. Using Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR; Hill, 2012), ten elite sevens rugby athletes participated in semi-structured interviews that lasted 45-60 minutes. Six domains were constructed by a five-member research team, including an external auditor: (I) Elite women’s rugby sevens athletes’ perceptions of how they learned coach caring; (II) Elite women’s rugby sevens athletes’ definition of coach caring: Athlete-centered coaching; (III) Elite women’s rugby sevens athletes’ description of the demonstration of coach caring; (IV) Elite women’s rugby sevens athletes’ definition of a lack of coach caring; (V) Elite women’s rugby sevens athletes’ description of the relationship between coach caring and athletic performance; and (VI) additional influences such as power dynamics, unethical behavior, and gender differences, and were also highlighted. Some unique findings of this study included rugby sevens’ players’ desire for caring coaches to pay more attention to safety and injury protocol and also for them to create more meaning for them during their sport experience. Practical implications for certified mental performance consultants (CMPCs) as well as coach education and future research directions are also given

Do sonographers have a professional identity?

Professional identity can be defined as a person's perception of themselves as a professional and is based on values, beliefs, motives, experiences and attributes. It has been described as internal standards which regulate the professionals work. The foundations for development of the professional identity are built early in life and are influenced by previous life experiences. Whilst there was much literature published on professional identity related to other health professions there has been very little published in relation to radiography and even less to sonography. This development of a professional 'self' through experiences and interactions with others for sonographers can therefore be explored by drawing on similarities from the literature in other health professions

The Relationship between Physical Qualities and Activity Profiles of International Women’s Sevens Players

Due to its inclusion in the recent Olympic Games, women’s Rugby Sevens has experienced a marked increase in popularity. As a result of the sports’ emergent nature the player profile and performance demands of women’s Rugby Sevens remain poorly understood. Rugby Sevens is a modified game of 15-a-side Rugby Union, played under similar laws but with fewer players per side and for less total game time. The sport is played in a tournament format with multiple games played in one day and across a 2 to 3-day period. Rugby Sevens is one of the few true contact sports played by females and is therefore unique in this regard. A lack of research into the specific demands of the game and physical qualities of the players means that the majority of training decisions for the sport are based on research performed on males playing either Rugby Sevens or other Rugby codes. As sex differences specific to elite sport performance are known to exist, basing training prescriptions for females on male-specific research requires a number of assumptions to be made, which is unfair and potentially inappropriate to female athletes of any playing ability. Based on the identified gaps in the literature, the purpose of this thesis was to first characterize 1) the physical qualities of players; and 2) the game demands of international women's Rugby Sevens; and 3) to then examine the interaction between these aspects of the game. To achieve these aims, it was important in Study 1 to first identify physical qualities that discriminated playing rank in women’s Rugby Sevens. Then, in Study 2, the characteristics of game activity and physiological demands of international women's Rugby Sevens were profiled and further investigated for how these demands changed in relation to key contextual factors such as: game half, game outcome, game margin, tournament day and playing position. Study 3 examined game demands in further detail specifically relating to the tactical phases of play; attack and defense. The interaction between tactical phase demands and game outcome was examined in order to profile successful style of play. Finally, Study 4 examined the relationships among physical qualities, game demands and contextual factors with the aim of identifying the physical qualities important for success at the international level. The international game of women’s Rugby Sevens is a physically demanding game, requiring athletes to run at and maintain high-speeds while under significant physiological strain. High- speed running ability across games and relative to minutes played was positively related to a number of contextual factors including game half, game outcome, game margin and opponent rank. High-speed running demands were consistently greater in defense than attack. To support the demands of the international game, women’s Rugby Sevens players are required to have well- developed strength, aerobic fitness, speed and repeated-sprint abilities. The development of these physical qualities, which were also found to underpin in-game activity and physiological profiles, will help to support successful game outcomes. Collectively, this thesis has provided a foundation and pragmatic level of knowledge on elite performance in women’s Rugby Sevens. Specifically, the development of physical qualities that support high-speed running ability may best prepare and maintain women for international-level competition in Rugby Sevens

Consumption of cocoa flavanols results in acute improvements in mood and cognitive performance during sustained mental effort

Cocoa flavanols (CF) positively influence physiological processes in ways that suggest their consumption may improve aspects of cognitive function. This study investigated the acute cognitive and subjective effects of CF consumption during sustained mental demand. In this randomized, controlled, double-blinded, balanced, three period crossover trial 30 healthy adults consumed drinks containing 520 mg, 994 mg CF and a matched control, with a three-day washout between drinks. Assessments included the state anxiety inventory and repeated 10-min cycles of a Cognitive Demand Battery comprising of two serial subtraction tasks (Serial Threes and Serial Sevens), a Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP) task and a mental fatigue scale, over the course of 1 h. Consumption of both 520 mg and 994 mg CF significantly improved Serial Threes performance. The 994 mg CF beverage significantly speeded RVIP responses but also resulted in more errors during Serial Sevens. Increases in self-reported mental fatigue were significantly attenuated by the consumption of the 520 mg CF beverage only. This is the first report of acute cognitive improvements following CF consumption in healthy adults. While the mechanisms underlying the effects are unknown they may be related to known effects of CF on endothelial function and blood flow

Quantifying aerobic and anaerobic training and its impact on physical attributes and performances in rugby sevens players

Abstract: Introduction: The current research was carried out to quantify aerobic and anaerobic training and its impact on physical attributes and performance in rugby seven players. Methods: This descriptive and interventional study was conducted on 54 male rugby sevens players through convenience sampling. Quantitative data was collected by means of physiological tests, consisting of pre-morphological characteristics, aerobic fitness, anaerobic fitness, muscular strength and muscular endurance. Collected data were analysed by SPSS-15 software. Descriptive statistics were described by means, standard deviation, percentage of improvement and minimum and maximum scores for all variables measured. Inferential statistics drew conclusions on the population group (backs versus forwards) from the sample measurements. Results: Rugby sevens players had morphological characteristics (sum of 7 skinfolds 75 ± 33 mm, body fat 14 ± 5 %, fat mass 14 ± 7 kg, lean mass 77 ± 11 kg; mean ± SD) similar to those of backs in international 15-player rugby union. No significant difference was found in the predicted VO2max (p ≥ 0.05) of the total rugby sevens group as well as positional variance. Significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in anaerobic capacity for the total rugby sevens players was obtained (63 ± 3 s). The results of strength and muscular endurance analysis in this study showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in the total rugby sevens group as well as in position. The results of this study indicated that forwards were stronger in the bench press, demonstrating a change score of 20,7 % compared to that of the backs (19,0%), as well as in squat measures (15,5%) compared to the backs (14,1%). The total rugby sevens group presented a change score of 18,5% in bench press between the pre- and post-intervention results and 14,3% change score in squats. Acceleration, speed and agility (10-m sprint 1.5 ± 0.3 s, 40- m sprint 5.11 ± 0.15 s, 15.1 ± 0.7 s) and muscle-power (vertical jump 28 ± 0.3 cm) qualities were similar to those of professional backs in 15-a-side players. Conclusion: Rugby sevens players require highly developed aerobic fitness and anaerobic fitness (repeated sprint ability, speed, power, muscular strength and endurance) to tolerate the demands of competition.M.Tech. (Sport Science

Psychological skills assessment and referee rugby sevens performance

This study aims to examine the psychological skills that are commonly used among referees rugby sevens and their relationship with referees’ performance. The Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987) was adapted and modified specifically for use by rugby sevens referees. It was administered to 132 rugby sevens referee (mean age 33.4 + 1.5 years; 132 males) of the Malaysian Rugby Union (MRU) which has been refereed in 10 rugby sevens tournament in Malaysia. The psychological skills variables employed in the questionnaire included confidence, anxiety management, mental preparation, motivation and concentration. The IRB Referee Sevens Performance Evaluation Form (r=0.94) was used to evaluate referee performance. These instruments measure the performance variable that contains the dimensions of control, communication, application of the law and the positioning. The descriptive statistics of the variables are Psychological skills (M= 120.14, SD= 6.97) and performance (M= 136.45, SD= 4.47) identified at a moderate level. Findings indicated no significant differences [F= (3, 72) =.636, p>0.05] in psychological skills across age levels but there are significant differences [F= (3, 128) =57.616, p<0.05] across experience levels. Highly experienced referees scored significantly higher in all psychological constructs compared to less experienced referees. Variables that showed strong and positive relationships with performance were anxiety management (r= .61), concentration (r= .57), confidence(r= .54) and motivation (r= .50). In conclusion, the psychological skills assessment can improve the efficacy of rugby referees and recommends that referee coaches increase the use of psychological skills in competitions and future training. Researchers should investigate the effectiveness of applied sport psychology interventions in enhancing referee performance in the future

Cerebral blood flow and behavioural effects of caffeine in habitual and non-habitual consumers of caffeine: A near infrared spectroscopy study

Caffeine has been shown to modulate cerebral blood flow, with little evidence of tolerance to these effects following habitual use. However, previous studies have focused on caffeine levels much higher than those found in dietary servings and have compared high caffeine consumers with low consumers rather than 'non-consumers'. The current placebo-controlled double-blind, balanced-crossover study employed near infrared spectroscopy to monitor pre-frontal cerebral-haemodynamics at rest and during completion of tasks that activate the pre-frontal cortex. Twenty healthy young habitual and non-habitual consumers of caffeine received 75mg caffeine or placebo. Caffeine significantly decreased cerebral blood flow but this was subject to a significant interaction with consumption status, with no significant effect being shown in habitual consumers and an exaggerated effect in non-habitual consumers. These findings suggest that caffeine, at levels typically found in a single dietary serving, is able to modulate cerebral blood flow but these effects are subject to tolerance

Oxygen Administration and Acute Human Cognitive Enhancement: Higher Cognitive Demand Leads to a More Rapid Decay of Transient Hyperoxia

Both supplemental glucose and oxygen administration can improve aspects of cognitive performance. Previous research has established that more effortful cognitive processing results in reductions in peripheral blood glucose. We hypothesized that a similar phenomenon may be evident when measuring blood oxygen levels. This double-blind, placebo (air)-controlled, crossover study examined the effects of 100% oxygen administration and mental effort on heart rate and blood oxygen saturation. In counterbalanced order, twenty participants performed tasks where cognitive demand was relatively high (Serial Sevens) and relatively low (counting upwards) under conditions of normoxia and hyperoxia. Oxygen saturation and heart rates were co-monitored using a pulse oximeter. Oxygen administration was associated with significantly fewer errors during Serial Sevens and the generation of more responses during counting. Both hyperoxia and heart rate were differentially affected by gas and task. Following oxygen inspiration, transient hyperoxia decayed significantly more rapidly during Serial Sevens than during the counting task. In the air condition, blood oxygen levels were raised during Serial Sevens compared with counting. The opposite effects were observed for heart rate. These results suggest that, following oxygen inspiration, a high cognitive load results in measurable uptake of circulating oxygen. This is likely to involve somatic and central processes