Multi-Cycle at Speed Test

In this research, we focus on the development of an algorithm that is used to generate a minimal number of patterns for path delay test of integrated circuits using the multi-cycle at-speed test. We test the circuits in functional mode, where multiple functional cycles follow after the test pattern scan-in operation. This approach increases the delay correlation between the scan and functional test, due to more functionally realistic power supply noise. We use multiple at-speed cycles to compact K-longest paths per gate tests, which reduces the number of scan patterns. After a path is generated, we try to place each path in the first pattern in the pattern pool. If the path does not fit due to conflicts, we attempt to place it in later functional cycles. This compaction approach retains the greedy nature of the original dynamic compaction algorithm where it will stop if the path fits into a pattern. If the path is not able to compact in any of the functional cycles of patterns in the pool, we generate a new pattern. In this method, each path delay test is compared to at-speed patterns in the pool. The challenge is that the at-speed delay test in a given at-speed cycle must have its necessary value assignments set up in previous (preamble) cycles, and have the captured results propagated to a scan cell in the later (coda) cycles. For instance, if we consider three at-speed (capture) cycles after the scan-in operation, and if we need to place a fault in the first capture cycle, then we must generate it with two propagation cycles. In this case, we consider these propagation cycles as coda cycles, so the algorithm attempts to select the most observable path through them. Likewise, if we are placing the path test in the second capture cycle, then we need one preamble cycle and one coda cycle, and if we are placing the path test in the third capture cycle, we require two preamble cycles with no coda cycles

Design of On-Chip Self-Testing Signature Register

Over the last few years, scan test has turn out to be too expensive to implement for industry standard designs due to increasing test data volume and test time. The test cost of a chip is mainly governed by the resource utilization of Automatic Test Equipment (ATE). Also, it directly depends upon test time that includes time required to load test program, to apply test vectors and to analyze generated test response of the chip. An issue of test time and data volume is increasingly appealing designers to use on-chip test data compactors, either on input side or output side or both. Such techniques significantly address the former issues but have little hold over increasing number of input-outputs under test mode. Further, test pins on DUT are increasing over the generations. Thus, scan channels on test floor are falling short in number for placement of such ICs. To address issues discussed above, we introduce an on-chip self-testing signature register. It comprises a response compactor and a comparator. The compactor compacts large chunk of response data to a small test signature whereas the comparator compares this test signature with desired one. The overall test result for the design is generated on single output pin. Being no storage of test response is demanded, the considerable reduction in ATE memory can be observed. Also, with only single pin to be monitored for test result, the number of tester channels and compare edges on ATE side significantly reduce at the end of the test. This cuts down maintenance and usage cost of test floor and increases its life time. Furthermore reduction in test pins gives scope for DFT engineers to increase number of scan chains so as to further reduce test time

Observability Driven Path Generation for Delay Test

This research describes an approach for path generation using an observability metric for delay test. K Longest Path Per Gate (KLPG) tests are generated for sequential circuits. A transition launched from a scan flip-flop (SFF) is captured into another SFF during at-speed clock cycles, that is, clock cycles at the rated design speed. The generated path is a ‘longest path’ suitable for delay test. The path generation algorithm then utilizes observability of the fan-out gates in the consecutive, lower-speed clock cycles, known as coda cycles, to generate paths ending at a SFF, to capture the transition from the at-speed cycles. For a given clocking scheme defined by the number of coda cycles, if the final flip-flop is not scan-enabled, the path generation algorithm attempts to generate a different path that ends at a SFF, located in a different branch of the circuit fan-out, indicated by lower observability. The paths generated over multiple cycles are sequentially justified using Boolean satisfiability. The observability metric optimizes the path generation in the coda cycles by always attempting to grow the path through the branch with the best observability and never generating a path that ends at a non-scan flip-flop. The algorithm has been developed in C++. The experiments have been performed on an Intel Core i7 machine with 64GB RAM. Various ISCAS benchmark circuits have been used with various KLPG configurations for code evaluation. Multiple configurations have been used for the experiments. The combinations of the values of K [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] and number of coda cycles [1, 2, 3] have been used to characterize the implementation. A sublinear rise is run time has been observed with increasing K values. The total number of tested paths rise with K and falls with number of coda cycles, due to the increasing number of constraints on the path, particularly due to the fixed inputs

Improved Path Recovery in Pseudo Functional Path Delay Test Using Extended Value Algebra

Scan-based delay test achieves high fault coverage due to its improved controllability and observability. This is particularly important for our K Longest Paths Per Gate (KLPG) test approach, which has additional necessary assignments on the paths. At the same time, some percentage of the flip-flops in the circuit will not scan, increasing the difficulty in test generation. In particular, there is no direct control on the outputs of those non-scan cells. All the non-scan cells that cannot be initialized are considered “uncontrollable” in the test generation process. They behave like “black boxes” and, thus, may block a potential path propagation, resulting in path delay test coverage loss. It is common for the timing critical paths in a circuit to pass through nodes influenced by the non-scan cells. In our work, we have extended the traditional Boolean algebra by including the “uncontrolled” state as a legal logic state, so that we can improve path coverage. Many path pruning decisions can be taken much earlier and many of the lost paths due to uncontrollable non-scan cells can be recovered, increasing path coverage and potentially reducing average CPU time per path. We have extended the existing traditional algebra to an 11-value algebra: Zero (stable), One (stable), Unknown, Uncontrollable, Rise, Fall, Zero/Uncontrollable, One/Uncontrollable, Unknown/Uncontrollable, Rise/Uncontrollable, and Fall/Uncontrollable. The logic descriptions for the NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR, XNOR, PI, Buff, Mux, TSL, TSH, TSLI, TSHI, TIE1 and TIE0 cells in the ISCAS89 benchmark circuits have been extended to the 11-value truth table. With 10% non-scan flip-flops, improved path delay fault coverage has been observed in comparison to that with the traditional algebra. The greater the number of long paths we want to test; the greater the path recovery advantage we achieve using our algebra. Along with improved path recovery, we have been able to test a greater number of transition fault sites. In most cases, the average CPU time per path is also lower while using the 11-value algebra. The number of tested paths increased by an average of 1.9x for robust tests, and 2.2x for non-robust tests, for K=5 (five longest rising and five longest falling transition paths through each line in the circuit), using the eleven-value algebra in contrast to the traditional algebra. The transition fault coverage increased by an average of 70%. The improvement increased with higher K values. The CPU time using the extended algebra increased by an average of 20%. So the CPU time per path decreased by an average of 40%. In future work, the extended algebra can achieve better test coverage for memory intensive circuits, circuits with logic black boxes, third party IPs, and analog units

Scan-Chain Intra-Cell Aware Testing

This paper first presents an evaluation of the effectiveness of different test pattern sets in terms of ability to detect possible intra-cell defects affecting the scan flip-flops. The analysis is then used to develop an effective test solution to improve the overall test quality. As a major result, the paper demonstrates that by combining test vectors generated by a commercial ATPG to detect stuck-at and delay faults, plus a fragment of extra test patterns generated to specifically target the escaped defects, we can obtain a higher intra-cell defect coverage (i.e., 6.46% on average) and a shorter test time (i.e., 42.20% on average) than by straightforwardly using an ATPG which directly targets these defects

Conception et test des circuits et systèmes numériques à haute fiabilité et sécurité

Research activities I carried on after my nomination as Chargé de Recherche deal with the definition of methodologies and tools for the design, the test and the reliability of secure digital circuits and trustworthy manufacturing. More recently, we have started a new research activity on the test of 3D stacked Integrated CIrcuits, based on the use of Through Silicon Vias. Moreover, thanks to the relationships I have maintained after my post-doc in Italy, I have kept on cooperating with Politecnico di Torino on the topics related to test and reliability of memories and microprocessors.Secure and Trusted DevicesSecurity is a critical part of information and communication technologies and it is the necessary basis for obtaining confidentiality, authentication, and integrity of data. The importance of security is confirmed by the extremely high growth of the smart-card market in the last 20 years. It is reported in "Le monde Informatique" in the article "Computer Crime and Security Survey" in 2007 that financial losses due to attacks on "secure objects" in the digital world are greater than $11 Billions. Since the race among developers of these secure devices and attackers accelerates, also due to the heterogeneity of new systems and their number, the improvement of the resistance of such components becomes today’s major challenge.Concerning all the possible security threats, the vulnerability of electronic devices that implement cryptography functions (including smart cards, electronic passports) has become the Achille’s heel in the last decade. Indeed, even though recent crypto-algorithms have been proven resistant to cryptanalysis, certain fraudulent manipulations on the hardware implementing such algorithms can allow extracting confidential information. So-called Side-Channel Attacks have been the first type of attacks that target the physical device. They are based on information gathered from the physical implementation of a cryptosystem. For instance, by correlating the power consumed and the data manipulated by the device, it is possible to discover the secret encryption key. Nevertheless, this point is widely addressed and integrated circuit (IC) manufacturers have already developed different kinds of countermeasures.More recently, new threats have menaced secure devices and the security of the manufacturing process. A first issue is the trustworthiness of the manufacturing process. From one side, secure devices must assure a very high production quality in order not to leak confidential information due to a malfunctioning of the device. Therefore, possible defects due to manufacturing imperfections must be detected. This requires high-quality test procedures that rely on the use of test features that increases the controllability and the observability of inner points of the circuit. Unfortunately, this is harmful from a security point of view, and therefore the access to these test features must be protected from unauthorized users. Another harm is related to the possibility for an untrusted manufacturer to do malicious alterations to the design (for instance to bypass or to disable the security fence of the system). Nowadays, many steps of the production cycle of a circuit are outsourced. For economic reasons, the manufacturing process is often carried out by foundries located in foreign countries. The threat brought by so-called Hardware Trojan Horses, which was long considered theoretical, begins to materialize.A second issue is the hazard of faults that can appear during the circuit’s lifetime and that may affect the circuit behavior by way of soft errors or deliberate manipulations, called Fault Attacks. They can be based on the intentional modification of the circuit’s environment (e.g., applying extreme temperature, exposing the IC to radiation, X-rays, ultra-violet or visible light, or tampering with clock frequency) in such a way that the function implemented by the device generates an erroneous result. The attacker can discover secret information by comparing the erroneous result with the correct one. In-the-field detection of any failing behavior is therefore of prime interest for taking further action, such as discontinuing operation or triggering an alarm. In addition, today’s smart cards use 90nm technology and according to the various suppliers of chip, 65nm technology will be effective on the horizon 2013-2014. Since the energy required to force a transistor to switch is reduced for these new technologies, next-generation secure systems will become even more sensitive to various classes of fault attacks.Based on these considerations, within the group I work with, we have proposed new methods, architectures and tools to solve the following problems:• Test of secure devices: unfortunately, classical techniques for digital circuit testing cannot be easily used in this context. Indeed, classical testing solutions are based on the use of Design-For-Testability techniques that add hardware components to the circuit, aiming to provide full controllability and observability of internal states. Because crypto‐ processors and others cores in a secure system must pass through high‐quality test procedures to ensure that data are correctly processed, testing of crypto chips faces a dilemma. In fact design‐for‐testability schemes want to provide high controllability and observability of the device while security wants minimal controllability and observability in order to hide the secret. We have therefore proposed, form one side, the use of enhanced scan-based test techniques that exploit compaction schemes to reduce the observability of internal information while preserving the high level of testability. From the other side, we have proposed the use of Built-In Self-Test for such devices in order to avoid scan chain based test.• Reliability of secure devices: we proposed an on-line self-test architecture for hardware implementation of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). The solution exploits the inherent spatial replications of a parallel architecture for implementing functional redundancy at low cost.• Fault Attacks: one of the most powerful types of attack for secure devices is based on the intentional injection of faults (for instance by using a laser beam) into the system while an encryption occurs. By comparing the outputs of the circuits with and without the injection of the fault, it is possible to identify the secret key. To face this problem we have analyzed how to use error detection and correction codes as counter measure against this type of attack, and we have proposed a new code-based architecture. Moreover, we have proposed a bulk built-in current-sensor that allows detecting the presence of undesired current in the substrate of the CMOS device.• Fault simulation: to evaluate the effectiveness of countermeasures against fault attacks, we developed an open source fault simulator able to perform fault simulation for the most classical fault models as well as user-defined electrical level fault models, to accurately model the effect of laser injections on CMOS circuits.• Side-Channel attacks: they exploit physical data-related information leaking from the device (e.g. current consumption or electro-magnetic emission). One of the most intensively studied attacks is the Differential Power Analysis (DPA) that relies on the observation of the chip power fluctuations during data processing. I studied this type of attack in order to evaluate the influence of the countermeasures against fault attack on the power consumption of the device. Indeed, the introduction of countermeasures for one type of attack could lead to the insertion of some circuitry whose power consumption is related to the secret key, thus allowing another type of attack more easily. We have developed a flexible integrated simulation-based environment that allows validating a digital circuit when the device is attacked by means of this attack. All architectures we designed have been validated through this tool. Moreover, we developed a methodology that allows to drastically reduce the time required to validate countermeasures against this type of attack.TSV- based 3D Stacked Integrated Circuits TestThe stacking process of integrated circuits using TSVs (Through Silicon Via) is a promising technology that keeps the development of the integration more than Moore’s law, where TSVs enable to tightly integrate various dies in a 3D fashion. Nevertheless, 3D integrated circuits present many test challenges including the test at different levels of the 3D fabrication process: pre-, mid-, and post- bond tests. Pre-bond test targets the individual dies at wafer level, by testing not only classical logic (digital logic, IOs, RAM, etc) but also unbounded TSVs. Mid-bond test targets the test of partially assembled 3D stacks, whereas finally post-bond test targets the final circuit.The activities carried out within this topic cover 2 main issues:• Pre-bond test of TSVs: the electrical model of a TSV buried within the substrate of a CMOS circuit is a capacitance connected to ground (when the substrate is connected to ground). The main assumption is that a defect may affect the value of that capacitance. By measuring the variation of the capacitance’s value it is possible to check whether the TSV is correctly fabricated or not. We have proposed a method to measure the value of the capacitance based on the charge/ discharge delay of the RC network containing the TSV.• Test infrastructures for 3D stacked Integrated Circuits: testing a die before stacking to another die introduces the problem of a dynamic test infrastructure, where test data must be routed to a specific die based on the reached fabrication step. New solutions are proposed in literature that allow reconfiguring the test paths within the circuit, based on on-the-fly requirements. We have started working on an extension of the IEEE P1687 test standard that makes use of an automatic die-detection based on pull-up resistors.Memory and Microprocessor Test and ReliabilityThanks to device shrinking and miniaturization of fabrication technology, performances of microprocessors and of memories have grown of more than 5 magnitude order in the last 30 years. With this technology trend, it is necessary to face new problems and challenges, such as reliability, transient errors, variability and aging.In the last five years I’ve worked in cooperation with the Testgroup of Politecnico di Torino (Italy) to propose a new method to on-line validate the correctness of the program execution of a microprocessor. The main idea is to monitor a small set of control signals of the processors in order to identify incorrect activation sequences. This approach can detect both permanent and transient errors of the internal logic of the processor.Concerning the test of memories, we have proposed a new approach to automatically generate test programs starting from a functional description of the possible faults in the memory.Moreover, we proposed a new methodology, based on microprocessor error probability profiling, that aims at estimating fault injection results without the need of a typical fault injection setup. The proposed methodology is based on two main ideas: a one-time fault-injection analysis of the microprocessor architecture to characterize the probability of successful execution of each of its instructions in presence of a soft-error, and a static and very fast analysis of the control and data flow of the target software application to compute its probability of success

Metodologia de monitorização do envelhecimento para aplicações de auto-teste embutido

Dissertação de mestrado, Engenharia Eléctrica e Electrónica, Instituto Superior de Engenharia, Universidade do Algarve, 2013The high integration level achieved as well as complexity and performance enhancements in new nanometer technologies make IC (Integrated Circuits) products very difficult to test. Moreover, long term operation brings aging cumulative degradations, due to new processes and materials that lead to emerging defect phenomena and the consequence are products with increased variability in their behaviour, more susceptible to delay-faults and with a reduced expected lifecycle. The main objectives of this thesis are twofold, as explained in the following. First, a new software tool is presented to generate HDL (Hardware Description Language) for BIST (Built-In Self-Test) structures, aiming delay-faults, and inserted the new auto-test functionality in generic sequential CMOS circuits. The BIST methodology used implements a scan based BIST approach, using a new BIST controller to implement the Launch-On-Shift (LOS) and Launch-On-Capture (LOC) delay-fault techniques. Second, it will be shown that multi-VDD tests in circuits with BIST infra-structures can be used to detect gross delay-faults during on-field operations, and consequently can be used as an aging sensor methodology during circuits’ lifecycle. The discrete set of multi-VDD BIST sessions generates a Voltage Signature Collection (VSC) and the presence of a delay-fault (or a physical defect) modifies the VSC collection, allowing the aging sensor capability. The proposed Design for Testability (DFT) method and tool are demonstrated with extensive SPICE simulation using three ITC’99 benchmark circuits.O elevado nível de integração atingida, complexidade, assim como performances melhoradas em novas tecnologias nanométricas tornam os produtos em circuitos integrados tecnológicos muito difíceis de testar. Para além disso, a operação a longo prazo produz degradações cumulativas pelo envelhecimento dos circuitos, devido a novos processos e materiais que conduzem a novos defeitos e a consequência são produtos com maior variabilidade no seu funcionamento, mais susceptíveis às faltas de atraso e com um tempo de vida menor. Os principais objectivos desta tese são dois, como explicado em seguida. Primeiro, é apresentada uma nova ferramenta de software para gerar estruturas de auto-teste integrado (BIST, Built-In Self-Test) descritas em linguagens de descrição de hardware (HDL, Hardware Description Language), com o objectivo de detectar faltas de atraso, e inserir a nova funcionalidade de auto-teste em circuitos genéricos sequenciais CMOS. A metodologia de BIST utilizada implementa um procedimento baseado em caminhos de deslocamento, utilizando um novo controlador de BIST para implementar técnicas de faltas de atraso, como Launch-On-Shift (LOS) e Launch-On-Capture (LOC). Segundo, irá ser mostrado que testes multi-VDD em circuitos com infra-estruturas de BIST podem ser usados para detectar faltas de atraso grosseiras durante a operação no terreno e, consequentemente, pode ser usado como uma metodologia de sensor de envelhecimento durante o tempo de vida dos circuitos. Um número discreto de sessões BIST multi-VDD geram uma Colecção de Assinaturas de Tensão (Voltage Signature Collection, VSC) e a presença de uma falta de atraso (ou um defeito físico) faz modificar a colecção VSC, comportando-se como sensor de envelhecimento. O trabalho foi iniciado com o estudo do estado da arte nesta área. Assim, foram estudadas e apresentadas no capítulo 2 as principais técnicas de DfT (Design for Testability) disponíveis e utilizadas pela indústria, nomeadamente, as técnicas de SP (Scan Path), de BIST e as técnicas de scan para delay-faults, LOS e LOC. No capítulo 3, ainda referente ao estudo sobre o estado da arte, é apresentado o estudo sobre os fenómenos que provocam o envelhecimento dos circuitos digitais, nomeadamente o NBTI (Negative Bias Temperature Instability), que é considerado o factor mais relevante no envelhecimento de circuitos integrados (especialmente em nanotecnologias). Em seguida, iniciou-se o desenvolvimento do primeiro objectivo. Relativamente a este assunto, começou-se por definir qual o comportamento das estruturas de BIST e como se iriam interligar. O comportamento foi descrito, bloco a bloco, em VHDL comportamental, ao nível RTL (Register Transfer Level). Esta descrição foi então validada por simulação, utilizando a ferramenta ModelSim. Posteriormente, esta descrição comportamental foi sintetizada através da ferramenta Synopsys, com a colaboração do INESC-ID em Lisboa (instituição parceira nestes trabalhos de investigação), e foi obtida uma netlist ao nível de porta lógica, que foi guardada utilizando a linguagem de descrição de hardware Verilog. Assim, obtiveram-se dois tipos de descrição dos circuitos BIST: uma comportamental, em VHDL, e outra estrutural, em Verilog (esta descrição estrutural em Verilog irá permitir, posteriormente, fazer a simulação e análise de envelhecimento). A nova estrutura de BIST obtida é baseada no modelo clássico de BIST, mas apresenta algumas alterações, nomeadamente ao nível da geração de vectores de teste e no controlo e aplicação desses vectores ao circuito. Estas modificações têm como objectivo aumentar a detecção de faltas e permitir o teste de faltas de atraso. É composto por três blocos denominados LFSRs (Linear Feedback Shift Registers), um utilizado para gerar os vectores pseudo-aleatórios para as entradas primárias do circuito, outro para gerar os vectores para a entrada do scan path, e o último utilizado como contador para controlar o número de bits introduzidos no scan path. Relativamente ao controlador, este foi especificamente desenhado para controlar um teste com estratégia de test-per-scan (ou seja, um teste baseado no caminho de varrimento existente no circuito) e tem uma codificação de estados que permite implementar as estratégias de teste de faltas de atraso, Launch-On-Shift (LOS) e Launch-On-Capture (LOC). Na secção de saída do novo modelo de BIST, o processo de compactação usa o mesmo princípio do modelo tradicional, utilizando neste caso um MISR (Multiple Input Signature Register). Ainda relativamente ao primeiro objectivo, seguiu-se o desenvolvimento da ferramenta BISTGen, para automatizar a geração das estruturas de BIST atrás mencionadas, nos dois tipos de descrição, e automaticamente inserir estas estruturas num circuito de teste (CUT, Circuit Under Test). A aplicação de software deve permitir o manuseamento de dois tipos de informação relativa ao circuito: descrição do circuito pelo seu comportamento, em VHDL, e descrição do circuito pela sua estrutura, em Verilog. Deve ter como saída a descrição de hardware supra citada, inserindo todos os blocos integrantes da estrutura num só ficheiro, contendo apenas um dos tipos de linguagem (Verilog ou VHDL), escolhida previamente pelo utilizador. No caso dos LFSRs e do MISR, o programa deve permitir ao utilizador a escolha de LFSRs do tipo linear ou do tipo modular (também conhecidos por fibonacci ou galois), e deve também possuir suporte para automaticamente seleccionar de uma base de dados quais as realimentações necessárias que conduzem à definição do polinómio primitivo para o LFSR. Será necessário ainda criar uma estrutura em base de dados para gerir os nomes e o número de entradas e saídas do circuito submetido a teste, a que chamamos CUT, de forma a simplificar o processo de renomeação que o utilizador poderá ter de efectuar. Dar a conhecer ao programa os nomes das entradas e saídas do CUT é de relevante importância, uma vez que a atribuição de nomes para as entradas e saídas pode vir em qualquer língua ou dialecto, não coincidindo com os nomes padrão normalmente atribuídos. Relativamente às duas linguagens que o programa recebe através do CUT na sua entrada, no caso VHDL após inserir BIST o ficheiro final terá sempre uma estrutura semelhante, qualquer que seja o ficheiro a ser tratado, variando apenas com o hardware apresentado pelo CUT. No entanto, para o caso Verilog a situação será diferente, uma vez que o programa tem de permitir que o ficheiro final gerado possa surgir de duas formas dependendo da escolha desejada. A primeira forma que o software deve permitir para o caso Verilog é gerar um ficheiro contendo módulos, de uma forma semelhante ao que acontece no caso VHDL. No entanto, deve permitir também a obtenção, caso o utilizador solicite, de um ficheiro unificado, sem sub-módulos nos blocos, para que o ficheiro final contenha apenas uma única estrutura, facilitando a sua simulação e análise de envelhecimento nas etapas seguintes. Relativamente ao segundo objectivo, com base no trabalho anterior já efectuado em metodologias para detectar faltas de delay em circuitos com BIST, foi definida uma metodologia de teste para, durante a vida útil dos circuitos, permitir avaliar como vão envelhecendo, tratando-se assim de uma metodologia de monitorização de envelhecimento para circuitos com BIST. Um aspecto fundamental para a realização deste segundo objectivo é podermos prever como o circuito vai envelhecer. Para realizar esta tarefa, sempre subjectiva, utilizou-se uma ferramenta desenvolvida no ISE-UAlg em outra tese de mestrado anterior a esta, a ferramenta AgingCalc. Esta ferramenta inicia-se com a definição, por parte do utilizador, das probabilidades de operação das entradas primárias do circuito (probabilidades de cada entrada estar a ‘0’ ou a ‘1’). De notar que este é o processo subjectivo existente na análise de envelhecimento, já que é impossível prever como um circuito irá ser utilizado. Com base nestas probabilidades de operação, o programa utiliza a estrutura do circuito para calcular, numa primeira instância, as probabilidades dos nós do circuito estarem a ‘0’ ou a ‘1’, e numa segunda instância as probabilidades de cada transístor PMOS estar ligado e com o seu canal em stress (com uma tensão negativa aplicada à tensão VGS e um campo eléctrico aplicado ao dieléctrico da porta). Utilizando fórmulas definidas na literatura para modelação do parâmetro Vth (tensão limiar de condução) do transístor de acordo com um envelhecimento produzido pelo efeito NBTI (Negative Bias Temperature Instability), o programa calcula, para cada ano ou tempo de envelhecimento a considerar, as variações ocorridas no Vth de cada transístor PMOS, com base nas probabilidades e condições de operação previamente definidas, obtendo um novo Vth para cada transístor (os valores prováveis para os transístores envelhecidos). Em seguida, o programa instancia o simulador HSPICE para simular as portas lógicas do circuito, utilizando uma descrição que contém os Vth calculados. Esta simulação permite calcular os atrasos em cada porta para cada ano de envelhecimento considerado, podendo em seguida calcular e obter a previsão para o envelhecimento de cada caminho combinatório do circuito. É de notar que, embora a previsão de envelhecimento seja subjectiva, pois depende de uma previsão de operação, é possível definir diferentes probabilidades de operação de forma a estabelecer limites prováveis para o envelhecimento de cada caminho. Tendo uma ferramenta que permite prever como o circuito irá envelhecer, é possível utilizá-la para modificar a estrutura do circuito e introduzir faltas de delay produzidas pelo envelhecimento por NBTI ao longo dos anos de operação (modelados pelo Vth dos transístores PMOS). Assim, no capítulo 5 irá ser mostrado que testes multi-VDD em circuitos com infra-estruturas de BIST podem ser usados para detectar faltas de atraso grosseiras durante a operação no terreno, podendo em alguns casos identificar variações provocadas pelo envelhecimento em caminhos curtos, e consequentemente, estes testes podem ser usados como uma metodologia de sensor de envelhecimento durante o tempo de vida dos circuitos. Um número discreto de sessões BIST multi-VDD geram uma Colecção de Assinaturas de Tensão (Voltage Signature Collection, VSC) e a presença de uma falta de atraso (ou um defeito físico) faz modificar a colecção VSC, comportando-se como sensor de envelhecimento. O objectivo será, especificando, fazer variar a tensão de alimentação, baixando o seu valor dentro de um determinado intervalo e submetendo o circuito a sucessivas sessões de BIST para cada valor de tensão, até que o circuito retorne uma assinatura diferente da esperada. Este procedimento de simulação será feito para uma maturidade de até 20 anos, podendo o incremento não ser unitário. Na realidade os circuitos nos primeiros anos de vida em termos estatísticos não sofrem envelhecimento a ponto de causar falhas por esse efeito. As falhas que podem acelerar o processo de envelhecimento estão relacionadas com defeitos significativos no processo de fabrico mas que ainda assim não são suficientes para no início do seu ciclo de vida fazer o circuito falhar, tornando-se efectivas após algum tempo de utilização. Os métodos e ferramentas propostos de DfT são demonstrados com extensas simulações VHDL e SPICE, utilizando circuitos de referência

Heuristics Based Test Overhead Reduction Techniques in VLSI Circuits

The electronic industry has evolved at a mindboggling pace over the last five decades. Moore’s Law [1] has enabled the chip makers to push the limits of the physics to shrink the feature sizes on Silicon (Si) wafers over the years. A constant push for power-performance-area (PPA) optimization has driven the higher transistor density trends. The defect density in advanced process nodes has posed a challenge in achieving sustainable yield. Maintaining a low Defect-per-Million (DPM) target for a product to be viable with stringent Time-to-Market (TTM) has become one of the most important aspects of the chip manufacturing process. Design-for-Test (DFT) plays an instrumental role in enabling low DPM. DFT however impacts the PPA of a chip. This research describes an approach of minimizing the scan test overhead in a chip based on circuit topology heuristics. These heuristics are applied on a full-scan design to convert a subset of the scan flip-flops (SFF) into D flip-flops (DFF). The K Longest Path per Gate (KLPG) [2] automatic test pattern generation (ATPG) algorithm is used to generate tests for robust paths in the circuit. Observability driven multi cycle path generation [3][4] and test are used in this work to minimize coverage loss caused by the SFF conversion process. The presence of memory arrays in a design exacerbates the coverage loss due to the shadow cast by the array on its neighboring logic. A specialized behavioral modeling for the memory array is required to enable test coverage of the shadow logic. This work develops a memory model integrated into the ATPG engine for this purpose. Multiple clock domains pose challenges in the path generation process. The inter-domain clocking relationship and corresponding logic sensitization are modeled in our work to generate synchronous inter-domain paths over multiple clock cycles. Results are demonstrated on ISCAS89 and ITC99 benchmark circuits. Power saving benefit is quantified using an open-source standard-cell library