Exploring the Effects of Response Type in a Visual Working Memory Task: An fNIRS Study

Visual working memory (VWM) allows us to hold visual information in mind to be manipulated for a task. Previous research shows that performance varies based on factors such as stimulus modality and number of distractors. This study aimed to explore the effect of response type on VWM performance in 4.5- and 5.5-year-olds. A single-item probe color change detection task and a cued recall with labeling task were administered. The tasks were identical in structure until the response phase of the trial. Neural data were collected using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Both tasks used set-sizes 1-3 and six canonical colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple). All children were given the change detection task first. Behavioral analyses show a main effect of set size for both the change detection task, F(2, 618) = 85.37, p \u3c .001, and the cued recall task, F(2, 711) = 131.19, p \u3c .001, with a significant decrease in performance as set size increased. Moreover, VWM capacity was estimated to be higher in the change detection task (k4=2.12, k5=2.36) compared to the cued recall task (k4=1.18, k5=1.84) (p \u3c .001). When we look at the neural data, both tasks activated bilateral temporal and parietal cortices. Comparing same and different response in the change detection task, we saw a distinct network of activation for both in the 5-year-old group but not the 4-year-old group, suggesting a developmental shift in neural activity. The cued recall task elicited decreased activation patterns in the 5-year-old group in frontal and temporal regions which suggest a need for a greater amount of neural resources due to greater difficulty in the younger age group

The Somatotopy of Mental Tactile Imagery

To what degree mental imagery (MI) bears on the same neuronal processes as perception has been a central question in the neurophysiological study of imagery. Sensory-recruitment models suggest that imagery of sensory material heavily relies on the involvement of sensory cortices. Empirical evidence mainly stems from the study of visual imagery and suggests that it depends on the mentally imagined material whether hierarchically lower regions are recruited. However, evidence from other modalities is necessary to infer generalized principles. In this fMRI study we used the somatotopic organization of the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) to test in how far MI of tactile sensations activates topographically sensory brain areas. Participants (N = 19) either perceived or imagined vibrotactile stimuli on their left or right thumbs or big toes. The direct comparison to a corresponding perception condition revealed that SI was somatotopically recruited during imagery. While stimulus driven bottom-up processing induced activity throughout all SI subareas, i.e., BA1, BA3a, BA3b, and BA2 defined by probabilistic cytoarchitectonic maps, top-down recruitment during imagery was limited to the hierarchically highest subarea BA2

Spontaneous Vicarious Perception of the Content of Another’s Visual Perspective

Visual perspective taking (VPT) is a core process of social cognition, providing humans with insights into how the environment looks from another’s point of view [1-4]. While VPT is often described as a quasi-perceptual phenomenon [5,6], evidence for this proposal has been lacking. Here we provide direct evidence that another’s perspective can “stand in” for own sensory input perceptual decision-making. In a variant of the classic mental rotation task, participants judged whether characters presented in different orientations were canonical or mirror-inverted. In the absence of another person, we replicate the well-established positive linear relationship between recognition times and angle of orientation, such that recognition becomes slower the more an item has to be mentally rotated into its canonical orientation [18]. Importantly, this relationship was disrupted simply by placing another individual in the scene. Items rotated away from the participant were recognised more rapidly not only the closer they appeared in their canonical orientation to the participant but also to this other individual, showing that another’s visual perspective drives mental rotation and item recognition in a similar way as one’s own. The effects were large and replicated in the three independent studies. They were observed even when the other person was completely passive, enhanced for explicit instructions to perspective-take, but reduced when the persons in the scenes were replaced with objects. The content of another’s perspective is therefore spontaneously derived, takes a quasi-perceptual form, and can stand in for own sensory input during perceptual decision-making

Parietal and early visual cortices encode working memory content across mental transformations

Active and flexible manipulations of memory contents “in the mind's eye” are believed to occur in a dedicated neural workspace, frequently referred to as visual working memory. Such a neural workspace should have two important properties: The ability to store sensory information across delay periods and the ability to flexibly transform sensory information. Here we used a combination of functional MRI and multivariate decoding to indentify such neural representations. Subjects were required to memorize a complex artificial pattern for an extended delay, then rotate the mental image as instructed by a cue and memorize this transformed pattern. We found that patterns of brain activity already in early visual areas and posterior parietal cortex encode not only the initially remembered image, but also the transformed contents after mental rotation. Our results thus suggest that the flexible and general neural workspace supporting visual working memory can be realized within posterior brain regions

Eye Movement-Related Confounds in Neural Decoding of Visual Working Memory Representations

A relatively new analysis technique, known as neural decoding or multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA), has become increasingly popular for cognitive neuroimaging studies over recent years. These techniques promise to uncover the representational contents of neural signals, as well as the underlying code and the dynamic profile thereof. A field in which these techniques have led to novel insights in particular is that of visual working memory (VWM). In the present study, we subjected human volunteers to a combined VWM/imagery task while recording their neural signals using magnetoencephalography (MEG). We applied multivariate decoding analyses to uncover the temporal profile underlying the neural representations of the memorized item. Analysis of gaze position however revealed that our results were contaminated by systematic eye movements, suggesting that the MEG decoding results from our originally planned analyses were confounded. In addition to the eye movement analyses, we also present the original analyses to highlight how these might have readily led to invalid conclusions. Finally, we demonstrate a potential remedy, whereby we train the decoders on a functional localizer that was specifically designed to target bottom-up sensory signals and as such avoids eye movements. We conclude by arguing for more awareness of the potentially pervasive and ubiquitous effects of eye movement-related confounds

View-Independent Working Memory Representations of Artificial Shapes in Prefrontal and Posterior Regions of the Human Brain

Traditional views of visual working memory postulate that memorized contents are stored in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex using an adaptive and flexible code. In contrast, recent studies proposed that contents are maintained by posterior brain areas using codes akin to perceptual representations. An important question is whether this reflects a difference in the level of abstraction between posterior and prefrontal representations. Here we investigated whether neural representations of visual working memory contents are view-independent, as indicated by rotation-invariance. Using fMRI and multivariate pattern analyses, we show that when subjects memorize complex shapes, both posterior and frontal brain regions maintain the memorized contents using a rotation-invariant code. Importantly, we found the representations in frontal cortex to be localized to the frontal eye fields rather than dorsolateral prefrontal cortices. Thus, our results give evidence for the view-independent storage of complex shapes in distributed representations across posterior and frontal brain regions

An interplay of feedforward and feedback signals supporting visual cognition

Vast majority of visual cognitive functions from low to high level rely not only on feedforward signals carrying sensory input to downstream brain areas but also on internally-generated feedback signals traversing the brain in the opposite direction. The feedback signals underlie our ability to conjure up internal representations regardless of sensory input – when imagining an object or directly perceiving it. Despite ubiquitous implications of feedback signals in visual cognition, little is known about their functional organization in the brain. Multiple studies have shown that within the visual system the same brain region can concurrently represent feedforward and feedback contents. Given this spatial overlap, (1) how does the visual brain separate feedforward and feedback signals thus avoiding a mixture of the perceived and the imagined? Confusing the two information streams could lead to potentially detrimental consequences. Another body of research demonstrated that feedback connections between two different sensory systems participate in a rapid and effortless signal transmission across them. (2) How do nonvisual signals elicit visual representations? In this work, we aimed to scrutinize the functional organization of directed signal transmission in the visual brain by interrogating these two critical questions. In Studies I and II, we explored the functional segregation of feedforward and feedback signals in grey matter depth of early visual area V1 using 7T fMRI. In Study III we investigated the mechanism of cross-modal generalization using EEG. In Study I, we hypothesized that functional segregation of external and internally-generated visual contents follows the organization of feedforward and feedback anatomical projections revealed in primate tracing anatomy studies: feedforward projections were found to terminate in the middle cortical layer of primate area V1, whereas feedback connections project to the superficial and deep layers. We used high-resolution layer-specific fMRI and multivariate pattern analysis to test this hypothesis in a mental rotation task. We found that rotated contents were predominant at outer cortical depth compartments (i.e. superficial and deep). At the same time perceived contents were more strongly represented at the middle cortical compartment. These results correspond to the previous neuroanatomical findings and identify how through cortical depth compartmentalization V1 functionally segregates rather than confuses external from internally-generated visual contents. For the more precise estimation of signal-by-depth separation revealed in Study I, next we benchmarked three MR-sequences at 7T - gradient-echo, spin-echo, and vascular space occupancy - in their ability to differentiate feedforward and feedback signals in V1. The experiment in Study II consisted of two complementary tasks: a perception task that predominantly evokes feedforward signals and a working memory task that relies on feedback signals. We used multivariate pattern analysis to read out the perceived (feedforward) and memorized (feedback) grating orientation from neural signals across cortical depth. Analyses across all the MR-sequences revealed perception signals predominantly in the middle cortical compartment of area V1 and working memory signals in the deep compartment. Despite an overall consistency across sequences, spin-echo was the only sequence where both feedforward and feedback information were differently pronounced across cortical depth in a statistically robust way. We therefore suggest that in the context of a typical cognitive neuroscience experiment manipulating feedforward and feedback signals at 7T fMRI, spin-echo method may provide a favorable trade-off between spatial specificity and signal sensitivity. In Study III we focused on the second critical question - how are visual representations activated by signals belonging to another sensory modality? Here we built our hypothesis following the studies in the field of object recognition, which demonstrate that abstract category-level representations emerge in the brain after a brief stimuli presentation in the absence of any explicit categorization task. Based on these findings we assumed that two sensory systems can reach a modality-independent representational state providing a universal feature space which can be read out by both sensory systems. We used EEG and a paradigm in which participants were presented with images and spoken words while they were conducting an unrelated task. We aimed to explore whether categorical object representations in both modalities reflect a convergence towards modality-independent representations. We obtained robust representations of objects and object categories in visual and auditory modalities; however, we did not find a conceptual representation shared across modalities at the level of patterns extracted from EEG scalp electrodes in our study. Overall, our results show that feedforward and feedback signals are spatially segregated in the grey matter depth, possibly reflecting a general strategy for implementation of multiple cognitive functions within the same brain region. This differentiation can be revealed with diverse MR-sequences at 7T fMRI, where spin-echo sequence could be particularly suitable for establishing cortical depth-specific effects in humans. We did not find modality-independent representations which, according to our hypothesis, may subserve the activation of visual representations by the signals from another sensory system. This pattern of results indicates that identifying the mechanisms bridging different sensory systems is more challenging than exploring within-modality signal circuitry and this challenge requires further studies. With this, our results contribute to a large body of research interrogating how feedforward and feedback signals give rise to complex visual cognition

Difficultés neurocognitives et fonctionnement cérébral chez des survivants de la leucémie lymphoblastique aiguë pédiatrique

La leucémie lymphoblastique aiguë est la forme la plus fréquente de cancer chez l’enfant. Aujourd’hui le taux de survie à ce cancer est très élevé, notamment en raison de l’efficacité des protocoles de traitement contemporains. Toutefois, malgré ce taux de survie élevé, plusieurs études soulignent la présence de troubles neurocognitifs, d’atteintes neuroanatomiques et de particularités neurofonctionnelles dans cette population, suite aux traitements. Ces atteintes peuvent affecter la qualité de vie ainsi que la réussite scolaire et professionnelle des survivants. L’objectif de cette thèse était de préciser le profil neurocognitif et d’étudier le fonctionnement neuronal de survivants de la LLA pédiatrique. La thèse est composée de trois articles, soit une revue de littérature et deux articles empiriques. Le premier article visait à recenser les difficultés neurocognitives et neuroanatomiques existantes chez les survivants de la LLA pédiatrique. Cette revue confirme que de nombreuses atteintes ont été identifiées dans cette population. Sur le plan neurocognitif, les atteintes les plus fréquemment rapportées sont des déficits des fonctions exécutives et attentionnelles. La mémoire à court terme s’avère être une fonction particulièrement touchée. Sur le plan neuroanatomique, la matière blanche cérébrale de la population survivante de LLA semble également être altérée. De plus, les atteintes paraissent persister plusieurs années après la fin des traitements. Dans certains cas, les atteintes peuvent même prendre de l’ampleur au fil des années post-diagnostic. Toutefois, peu d’études ont été menées chez des survivants à long terme d’âge adulte, soit plus d’une décennie après le diagnostic. Dans notre second article, nous décrivons le profil neurocognitif d’une cohorte d’adolescents et d’adultes survivants de la LLA. Nos résultats suggèrent la présence fréquente de difficultés au niveau de la mémoire à court terme/mémoire de travail, de la fluidité verbale phonologique, de la flexibilité cognitive et de la coordination visuo-motrice. Nous avons également validé une batterie d’évaluation neurocognitive brève auprès d’une sous-population de la cohorte initiale, composée uniquement d’adultes : la batterie DIVERGT. Nos résultats ont montré que la DIVERGT permettait de prédire avec précision le rendement intellectuel global, la performance en mathématiques et la performance en mémoire verbale. La batterie présentait une sensibilité et une spécificité acceptable, ainsi qu’une excellente valeur de prédiction négative, permettant de dépister les difficultés dans plusieurs domaines neurocognitifs. Ainsi, la batterie de dépistage pourrait facilement être utilisée dans le cadre des examens de routine chez les adultes survivants de la LLA et ainsi améliorer la qualité du suivi à long terme chez ces patients. Enfin, comme les difficultés neurocognitives en mémoire à court terme/mémoire de travail sont fréquentes, nous avons utilisé la magnétoencéphalographie (MEG) afin d’étudier le fonctionnement neuronal sous-jacent à la mémoire à court terme visuelle (MCTv) dans cette population d’adultes survivants de la LLA. En comparant les données des survivants à celles d’un groupe contrôle, nous avons cherché à mettre en lumière toute différence dans l’activation cérébrale générée lors d’une tâche de MCTv dans notre population clinique. Nos résultats ont montré que la performance en MCTv était similaire entre les survivants de la LLA et le groupe contrôle. Toutefois, une activation cérébrale atypique a été observée dans plusieurs régions cérébrales. Les survivants de la LLA présentaient une activation accrue dans la région occipitale latérale et les gyri précentraux et post-centraux, des régions habituellement associées à la MCTv. Une augmentation a aussi été observée dans certaines régions moins impliquées dans la MCTv, soit les régions temporales supérieure et médiane ainsi que le gyrus supramarginal. Une sous-activation de la région frontale inférieure a également été observée. Ces résultats pourraient suggérer l’existence de processus neuronaux compensatoires chez les survivants de la LLA. Ces processus leur permettraient d’obtenir une performance similaire à celle d’individus qui n’ont pas d’historique de traitement liés au cancer. En dernier lieu, nous avons montré que les patrons d’activation étaient modulés par l’âge d’apparition de la maladie, un facteur de risque important pour le développement de difficultés neurocognitives. Effectivement, l’activité cérébrale était réduite dans plusieurs régions chez les individus plus jeunes au moment du diagnostic. Ces résultats tendent à souligner l’importance d’étudier le fonctionnement neurocognitif et neuronal d’adultes survivants de la LLA, ainsi que les facteurs pouvant moduler leur efficacité.Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most prevalent cancer in children. Today, the survival rate of ALL is very high, mainly because of the efficiency of contemporary treatment protocols. However, several studies report neurocognitive deficits, neuroanatomical damage and neurofunctional particularities in that population. These deficits can affect quality of life as well as academic and professional achievement. The aim of the present thesis was to study the neurocognitive profile and neuronal functioning of survivors of ALL. This thesis includes three articles, one review article and two empirical articles. Our first article aimed at summarizing frequent neurocognitive difficulties and neuroanatomical damage present in ALL survivors. Our review shows that several deficits are seen in that population. Regarding cognition, executive difficulties are the most frequently reported. Amongst them, short-term memory is one of the most affected neurocognitive function. Regarding neuroanatomical damages, cerebral white matter integrity is frequently altered in that population. Moreover, these difficulties persist many years after the end of treatments. In some cases, the gravity of these deficits can even increase with passing years after diagnosis. Nevertheless, few studies have investigated long-term adult survivors, more than a decade after diagnosis. Our second article first describes the neurocognitive profile of a cohort of adolescent and adult ALL survivors. Our results suggest a high incidence of deficits in working memory, phonological verbal fluency, cognitive flexibility and visuo-motor coordination. We also aimed at validating a brief neurocognitive screening procedure in a sub-population of the same cohort, composed uniquely of adult ALL survivors: the DIVERGT screening procedure. Our results showed that the DIVERGT accurately predicted general intellectual functioning, mathematics and verbal memory. The procedure had acceptable sensitivity, specificity, and excellent negative predictive value (NPV) for the screening of difficulties in multiple neurocognitive domains. Therefore, the DIVERGT could easily be used during routine examination in adult ALL survivors and, improve the quality of cancer related long-term follow-up. Because deficits in short-term memory/ working memory are frequent in ALL survivors, we investigated neural correlates of visual short-term memory (VSTM) in that population, using magnetoencephalography (MEG) as part of our third article. Comparing ALL survivors results with healthy subjects, we aimed at uncovering VSTM related brain activation anomalies in our clinical population. Our results showed that performance in VSTM was similar between controls and survivors. However, atypical brain activation was found in multiple brain regions in ALL survivors. They displayed an over activation of regions that are usually involved in VSTM: lateral occipital, precentral and postcentral gyri, as well as regions that are not usually involved in VSTM: superior and middle temporal region and supramarginal gyrus. A sub-activation of the inferior frontal region was also found. Our results suggest the existence of compensatory neural mechanisms in ALL survivors, allowing them to perform as healthy subjects. Last, we showed that these patterns of activation were modulated by the age of onset, a well-known risk factor for the development of neurocognitive deficits. Activity was reduced in participants who were younger at the time of diagnosis. Altogether, these results highlight the importance of studying neurocognitive and neuronal functioning in ALL survivors, as well as the factors that can modulate their efficacy