Religion

An unsubmitted draft of a chapter from my dissertation that discusses the creation, definition, and study of the concept of religion and why the concept has no analytical value to my dissertation

Racialized Discourse at the Intersection of Meaning, Mind, and Metaphysics

Racialized discourse is language that transmits potentially harmful representations of racial groups. It is also a tool for maintaining status quo racial hierarchies. A theory of racialized discourse should describe the form and content of these representations, explain how they are transmitted in communication, and explain how their distribution plays a role in sustaining racial hierarchy. I meet these desiderata via an original account of the semantics of racially stereotypical generics (e.g “Blacks are criminal,” “Muslims are terrorists,” “Immigrants are violent”) and racialized terms deployed in the context of political discourse (e.g “thug,” “terrorist,” “immigrant,” “criminal,” “welfare”). The core semantic hypothesis is that the standards for the use and meaning of racialized vocabulary shift depending on the racial presentation of the individuals and groups described by that vocabulary. This shows that racial discrimination sometimes has a linguistic basis. Next, drawing on an interdisciplinary set of tools offered by philosophy of language, linguistics, developmental and social psychology, political science, and social ontology, I show that these types of racialized discourse i) essentialize racial groups, ii) indirectly increase tolerance for social hierarchy, and iii) play a role in maintaining racial stratification

Children's and Adults' Understanding of Punishment and the Criminal Justice System

Adults’ judgments regarding punishment can have important social ramifications. However, the origins of these judgments remain unclear. Using the legal system as an example domain in which people receive punishment, the current work employed two complementary approaches to examine how punishment-related concepts emerge. Study 1 tested both 6- to 8-year-olds and adults to ascertain which components of “end-state” punishment concepts emerge early in development and remain stable over time, and which components of punishment concepts change with age. Children, like adults, agreed with and spontaneously generated behavioral explanations for incarceration. However, children were more likely than adults to attribute incarceration to internal characteristics. Neither children nor adults reported that incarceration stems from societal-level factors such as poverty. Study 2 built on the results of Study 1 by probing the extent to which early punishment-related concepts in the legal domain emerge from a specific form of social experience—namely, parental incarceration. Children of incarcerated parents, like children whose parents were not incarcerated, were more likely to reference internal and behavioral factors than societal factors when discussing why people come into contact with the justice system. Taken together, these studies clarify how punishment-related concepts arise and therefore contribute to theories of moral psychology, social cognitive development, and criminal justice

The Evolution of Religion: How Cognitive By-Products, Adaptive Learning Heuristics, Ritual Displays, and Group Competition Generate Deep Commitments to Prosocial Religio

Understanding religion requires explaining why supernatural beliefs, devotions, and rituals are both universal and variable across cultures, and why religion is so often associated with both large-scale cooperation and enduring group conflict. Emerging lines of research suggest that these oppositions result from the convergence of three processes. First, the interaction of certain reliably developing cognitive processes, such as our ability to infer the presence of intentional agents, favors—as an evolutionary by-product—the spread of certain kinds of counterintuitive concepts. Second, participation in rituals and devotions involving costly displays exploits various aspects of our evolved psychology to deepen people's commitment to both supernatural agents and religious communities. Third, competition among societies and organizations with different faith-based beliefs and practices has increasingly connected religion with both within-group prosociality and between-group enmity. This connection has strengthened dramatically in recent millennia, as part of the evolution of complex societies, and is important to understanding cooperation and conflict in today's world.by-product hypothesis, credibility enhancing displays, cultural 40 transmission, cooperation, group competition, high gods,min

The poverty of selectionism: a critical assessment of Darwin’s legacy for the study of religion

The trend to take Darwin's legacy seriouly in the study of religion is gaining momentum. Especially in the cognitive approach to religion that builds its work on evolutonary psycology it allows for explanations bridging nature and culture. However, this seriousness usually does not involve a critical attitude towards (neo-) Darwinian theory with is simply considered "established". In this article I want to warn against the rather uncritical attitude that results from this, by pointing out the controversial nature of some underlying assumptions. A debate in anthropology between Maurice Bloch and Tim Ingold allows me to bring these underlying issues to the surface. Both share the view that anthropology should contribute to a science of human beings, both deplore much of the current situation in that discipline. However, for Bloch a scientific anthropolgy simply means taking seriously neo-Darwinian theory. Ingold on the other hand, makes a more extensive evaluation of anthropology and its link to Darwinian theory. As a consequence, a fundamentally different explanation for the current problematic state of anthropology as well as a fundamentally different view on evolution and development opens up. A study of religion, critical and scientifist, must take note of these developments

The Link Between Multilingualism and Intercultural Competence in Language Learning : An Empirical Investigation in Norwegian Secondary Schools

Denne artikkelbaserte doktorgradsavhandlingen er en del av Ungspråk-prosjektet, en forskningsstudie som undersøker elevers flerspråklighet og flerspråklige identitet på ungdomsskoler i Norge. Doktorgradsprosjektet har som hovedmål å utforske sammenhengen mellom flerspråklighet og den interkulturelle dimensjonen i språkopplæringen. Følgende forskningsspørsmål ble formulert: I hvilken grad er flerspråklighet og interkulturell kompetanse sammenkoblet i språkopplæringen på ungdomstrinnet? og Hvordan kan denne sammenkoblingen utforskes i denne spesifikke konteksten? De tre første artiklene setter søkelys på teoretiske og metodologiske aspekter. Artikkel 1 introduserer Ungspråk-prosjektets flermetodiske tilnærming og drøfter blant annet ulike måter å studere koblingen mellom flerspråklighet og interkulturell kompetanse i språkfagene i norske ungdomsskoler. Publikasjonen foreslår en todelt tilnærming som inkluderer en kvantitativ utforskning blant skoleelever og en kvalitativ studie av lærernes syn på koblingen mellom flerspråklighet og interkulturell kompetanse i fremmedspråksfaget. I tillegg diskuterer artikkelen teoretiske spørsmål og fremhever behovet for å forstå flerspråklighetsom et komplekst og mangefasettert fenomen som kan være assosiert med forskjellige faktorer (f.eks. språklæring i skolen, migrasjonsbakgrunn, kunnskap om dialekter og språkvariasjoner og reseptiv flerspråklighet). Publikasjonen indikerer også behovet for å utvikle et forskningsinstrument som kan bidra til å utforske elevenes flerspråklighet i dets fulle kompleksitet og i forbindelse med forskjellige faktorer. Artikkel 2 diskuterer utviklings- og valideringsprosessen til et slikt instrument. Publikasjonen introduserer det elektroniske kvantitative spørreskjemaet Ungspråk som ble utviklet til Ungspråk-prosjektet. Med fokus på elevenes flerspråklighet, gir det nyutviklede verktøyet muligheter til å utforske faktorer som kan belyse nyansene i elevenes flerspråklighet. Blant disse faktorene undersøker spørreskjemaet elevenes åpenhet og toleranse for andre sine meninger, og muliggjør dermed utforskning av den potensielle koblingen mellom studentenes flerspråklige og interkulturelle kompetanse. Artikkel 3 analyserer Ungspråk-spørreundersøkelsen og fire andre kvantitative spørreundersøkelser som har blitt brukt i forskning for å studere elevers interkulturelle kompetanse. Artikkelen undersøker hvordan og i hvilken grad spørreundersøkelsene har håndtert kulturell differensialisme, som har blitt sterkt kritisert i teoretisk forskning. Artikkelen fastslår at dette perspektivet fremdeles finnes i flere forskningsinstrumenter og diskuterer noen negative implikasjoner av bruken av slike verktøy. For eksempel kan de fremme stereotyper blant deltakerne og gi upålitelige forskningsresultater. I tillegg foreslår artikkelen hvordan forskere kan unngå dette problematiske perspektivet i fremtidige empiriske studier. De to neste publikasjonene introduserer de empiriske funnene fra doktorgrad-prosjektet og gir innsikt i sammenhengen mellom flerspråklighet og den interkulturelle dimensjonen i språklæring på ungdomsskolen. Artikkel 4 utforsker hvordan elevenes flerspråklighet, spesielt assosiert med å lære flere (engelsk og fremmedspråk) språk på skolen, kan kobles til elevers åpenhet. Basert på de empiriske dataene som er samlet inn gjennom Ungspråk-spørreundersøkelsen fra 593 studenter, antyder artikkelen at det kan være en særlig kobling mellom studentenes åpenhet og følgende faktorer: læring av fremmedspråk i stedet for bare engelsk på skolen, elevenes selvidentifisering som flerspråklige og vennskap med jevnaldrende som har andre hjemmespråk enn norsk. Disse resultatene antyder at utviklingen av elevenes flerspråklighet og flerspråklige identitet gjennom å lære flere språk på skolen kan være viktig for å fremme elevenes interkulturelle kompetanse. Bokkapittel 5 undersøker lærernes syn på flerspråklighet, interkulturell kompetanse og forbindelsen mellom disse to i faget Fremmedspråk. Studien analyserer datamateriale fra semistrukturerte intervjuer med seks fremmedspråkslærere som jobber på norske ungdomsskoler. Analysen viser at lærere ser på fremmedspråksfaget som et perfekt rom for å fremme studentenes interkulturelle kompetanse og flerspråklighet i sammenheng. Forståelsen av denne sammenhengen er imidlertid avhengig av lærernes syn på elementene som separate fenomener. Studien understreker behovet for å tilby klare definisjoner av sentrale konsepter i utdanningsdokumenter og å gi lærere praktiske retningslinjer for hvordan elementene kan undervises “i tandem” i faget Fremmedspråk.This article-based PhD thesis is part of the Ungspråk project, a mixed methods research study exploring students’ multilingualism and multilingual identity in lower secondary schools in Norway. Investigating the intersection of multilingualism and the intercultural dimension in language education, the present study seeks to answer the following research questions: To what extent are multilingualism and intercultural competence interconnected in secondary school language learning? and How can this interconnection be explored in this specific context? The first three articles focus on the theoretical and methodological aspects of the study. In introducing the mixed methods design of the overall Ungspråk project, Article 1 explores, among other issues, ways of studying the link between multilingualism and intercultural competence in the context of language learning in Norwegian secondary schools. The publication suggests applying a two-fold approach that includes a quantitative exploration of this link in school students and a qualitative study of teachers’ views on the interconnection between the elements in the Foreign Language subject. Moreover, the article addresses theoretical issues regarding such an investigation and highlights the need to conceptualize multilingualism, especially in the Norwegian secondary school context, as a complex, multifaceted phenomenon that can be associated with various factors (e.g., learning additional languages at school, migration background, knowledge of dialects and language variations, and receptive multilingualism). The publication also indicates the need to develop a research instrument that can help explore students’ multilingualism in its complexity and relation to various factors. Article 2 discusses the development and process of validating such an instrument. This publication introduces the electronic quantitative questionnaire Ungspråk, which was developed specifically for the purposes of the Ungspråk project. Focusing on students’ multilingualism, this newly developed tool enables the exploration of many other factors that can potentially shed light on the nuances of students’ multilingualism. Among these factors, the questionnaire examines students’ open-mindedness, thus allowing for the investigation of the potential link between students’ multilingualism and intercultural competence. Article 3 provides a critical analysis of the Ungspråk questionnaire and four other quantitative questionnaires that have been used in language learning research to explore students’ intercultural competence. It examines how and to what extent these tools have addressed the problematic perspective of cultural differentialism, which has been broadly criticized in theoretical research. The publication discusses some negative implications of the use of methodological tools that can reproduce cultural differentialism, such as the fostering of stereotypes among participants and the provision of unreliable research results. In addition, it suggests how researchers can avoid replicating this problematic perspective in future empirical studies. The fourth and fifth publications introduce the empirical findings of the PhD project and provide insights into the link between multilingualism and the intercultural dimension in secondary school language learning. Article 4 explores how students’ multilingualism, especially associated with learning additional (L2 English and L3 Spanish/German/French) languages at school, can be connected to open-mindedness. Based on the empirical data collected through the Ungspråk questionnaire from 593 students, the article suggests that there can be a particular link between students’ open-mindedness and the following factors: learning an L3 (Spanish/German/French) rather than only L2 (English) at school, students’ self-identification as multilingual, and friendship with peers whose home languages include those other than Norwegian. These results suggest that the development of students’ multilingualism and multilingual identity through learning additional languages at school can potentially be important in promoting students’ intercultural competence. The fifth publication, a book chapter, examines teachers’ views on multilingualism, intercultural competence, and the interconnection between the two as elements of the Foreign Language subject. The study draws on data from semi-structured interviews with six foreign language teachers working in Norwegian schools. It reveals that educators consider a foreign language classroom to be a perfect space for promoting students’ intercultural competence and multilingualism in interconnection. However, the understanding of this interconnection depends entirely on teachers’ views of the elements as separate phenomena. The study underlines the need to offer clear definitions of key concepts in policy documents and to provide teachers with practical guidelines on how the elements can be implemented in tandem in a foreign language classroom.Doktorgradsavhandlin

From inclusive identities to inclusive societies: comparing the content, structure, and impact of all inclusive superordinate categories

This work focused on the ontology of all-inclusive superordinate categories (encompassing all human beings) and their role in building more inclusive societies. Eight studies examined their content, structure, and impact on intergroup relations. Regarding content, a qualitative study showed that global citizenship-oriented labels (e.g., “citizens of the world”) and humanness-oriented labels (e.g., "all humans everywhere") activated different prototypical meanings (Chapter 2). Regarding structure, five studies relying on a prototype approach demonstrated that "citizens of the world" has a prototypical structure and there is differentiated cognitive processing for its central and peripheral attributes (Chapter 3). Two studies compared how “citizens of the world” and “humans” are cognitively represented (Chapter 4). A correlational study showed that national citizens perceived migrants as more prototypical of "citizens of the world" (outgroup projection); whether no projection occurred for "humans". An experimental study showed that the salience of “humans” (vs. “citizens of the world”) triggered higher entitativity and essentialist perceptions, and dual-identity representations. Regarding impact, these studies explored intergroup helping from host communities towards migrants (Chapter 4). Identification with "citizens of the world" and with “humans” was associated with different patterns of helping (dependency- and autonomy-oriented help); whether no differences on intergroup helping were found when categories’ salience was manipulated. Overall, results suggest that all-inclusive superordinate categories represent different socio-psychological realities (i.e., content, structure, and impact), and their differentiated spontaneous prototypical meaning, and particularly the malleability of their prototypes to contextual socio-status-political motivations, might have an important role in their effectiveness as common ingroup identities.Este trabalho analisa a ontologia de categorias supraordenadas all-inclusive (que incluem todos os seres humanos), e o seu papel na construção de sociedades mais inclusivas. Oito estudos examinaram o seu conteúdo, estrutura, e impacto nas relações intergrupais. Quanto ao conteúdo, um estudo qualitativo demonstrou que rótulos focados na cidadania global (e.g., "cidadãos do mundo") e na humanidade (e.g., "todos os seres humanos em qualquer lugar") ativaram diferentes significados prototípicos (Capítulo 2). Quanto à estrutura, cinco estudos de análise de protótipo demonstraram a estrutura prototípica da categoria "cidadãos do mundo" e o processamento cognitivo diferenciado dos seus atributos centrais e periféricos (Capítulo 3). Dois estudos compararam as representações cognitivas de “cidadãos do mundo” e “humanos” (Capítulo 4). Num estudo correlacional, os cidadãos nacionais percecionaram os migrantes como mais prototípicos de "cidadãos do mundo" (projeção exogrupal); não havendo projeção para "humanos". Num estudo experimental, a saliência de "humanos" (vs. "cidadãos do mundo") desencadeou perceções mais elevadas de entitatividade, essencialismo, e representações de dupla-identidade. Quanto ao impacto, estes estudos analisaram a ajuda prestada pelas comunidades de acolhimento aos migrantes (Capítulo 4). A identificação com “cidadãos do mundo” e “humanos” esteve associada a diferentes padrões de ajuda (orientada para dependência e autonomia); não havendo diferenças na ajuda intergrupal mediante manipulação da saliência das categorias. Genericamente, sugere-se que as categorias supraordenadas “all-inclusive” constituem realidades sócio-psicológicas distintas (i.e., conteúdo, estrutura, impacto), e que o significado e maleabilidade dos seus protótipos às motivações contextuais sociopolíticas e de estatuto importam para a sua eficácia enquanto identidades endogrupais comuns

The developmental and evolutionary origins of psychological essentialism lie in sortal object individuation

Cimpian & Salomon (C&S) present promising steps towards understanding the cognitive underpinnings of adult essentialism. However, their approach is less convincing regarding ontogenetic and evolutionary aspects. In contrast to C&S's claim, the so-called inherence heuristic, though perhaps vital in adult reasoning, seems an implausible candidate for the developmental and evolutionary foundations of psychological essentialism. A more plausible candidate is kind-based object individuation that already embodies essentialist modes of thinking and that is present in infants and nonhuman primate