Wi-Fi Node Location Estimation Based on GNSS and Motion Sensor Data

Indoor localization is a well researched scientific topic and demanded commercial and technological area. However, the problem of scalability remains for indoor localization systems. Though there is a plenty of radio-based approaches for indoor localization that achieve high level of accuracy, many of those rely on manual data collection which is laborious and not globally scalable. In this paper we approach the problem of scalable radio-mapping by improving estimation of horizontal locations of Wi-Fi radio nodes using GNSS and motion sensor data collected in crowd-sourcing manner, i.e. without manual human intervention. We use simple and yet robust sensor fusion algorithms based on Kalman Filter to estimate pedestrian tracks in indoor and outdoor environments, and then use resulting location estimates as a reference for radio measurements, which are further used to estimate horizontal locations of Wi-Fi radio nodes indoors. We then analyze different radio measurement selection criteria for Wi-Fi node location estimation methods. The experiments based on real data indicate that sensor fusion considerably improves localization of Wi-Fi radio nodes when compared to approaches relying on GNSS data only. Our study also shows that using only radio measurements with strong signal and accurate location reference results in more accurate localization of Wi-Fi radio nodes. The results also indicate that estimation of Wi-Fi radio node locations with accuracy below 15-20 meters on average is achievable without manual data collection, and hence in a globally scalable way. Proposed approaches may be further extended with sensor fusion methods utilizing, for example, misalignment estimation and magnetometer measurements, as well as applied to radio technologies other than Wi-Fi, such as 5G radio technologies.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

Estimation Algorithms for Non-Gaussian State-Space Models with Application to Positioning

State-space models (SSMs) are used to model systems with hidden time-varying state and observable measurement output. In statistical SSMs, the state dynamics is assumed known up to a random term referred to as the process noise, and the measurements contain random measurement noise. Kalman filter (KF) and Rauch– Tung–Striebel smoother (RTSS) are widely-applied closed-form algorithms that provide the parameters of the exact Bayesian filtering and smoothing distributions for discrete-time linear statistical SSMs where the process and measurement noises follow Gaussian distributions. However, when the SSM involves nonlinear functions and/or non-Gaussian noises, the Bayesian filtering and smoothing distributions cannot in general be solved using closed-form algorithms. This thesis addresses approximate Bayesian time-series inference for two positioning-related problems where the assumption of Gaussian noises cannot capture all useful knowledge of the considered system’s statistical properties: map-assisted indoor positioning and positioning using time-delay measurements.The motion constraints imposed by the indoor map are typically incorporated in the position estimate using the particle filter (PF) algorithm. The PF is a Monte Carlo algorithm especially suited for statistical SSMs where the Bayesian posterior distributions are too complicated to be adequately approximated using a well-known distribution family with a low-dimensional parameter space. In mapassisted indoor positioning, the trajectories that cross walls or floor levels get a low probability in the model. In this thesis, improvements to three different PF algorithms for map-assisted indoor positioning are proposed and compared. In the wall-collision PF, weighted random samples, also known as particles, are moved based on inertial sensor measurements, and the particles that collide with the walls are downweighted. When the inertial sensor measurements are very noisy, map information is used to guide the particles such that fewer particles collide with the walls, which implies that more particles contribute to the estimation. When no inertial sensor information is used, the particles are moved along the links of a graph that is dense enough to approximate the set of expected user paths.Time-delay based ranging measurements of e.g. ultra-wideband (UWB) and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) contain occasional positive measurement errors that are large relative to the majority of the errors due to multipath effects and denied line of sight. In this thesis, computationally efficient approximate Bayesian filters and smoothers are proposed for statistical SSMs where the measurement noise follows a skew t -distribution, and the algorithms are applied to positioning using time-delay based ranging measurements. The skew t -distribution is an extension of the Gaussian distribution, which has two additional parameters that affect the heavytailedness and skewness of the distribution. When the measurement noise model is heavy-tailed, the optimal Bayesian algorithm is robust to occasional large measurement errors, and when the model is positively (or negatively) skewed, the algorithms account for the fact that most large errors are known to be positive (or negative). Therefore, the skew t -distribution is more flexible than the Gaussian distribution and captures more statistical features of the error distributions of UWB and GNSS measurements. Furthermore, the skew t -distribution admits a conditionally Gaussian hierarchical form that enables approximating the filtering and smoothing posteriors with Gaussian distributions using variational Bayes (VB) algorithms. The proposed algorithms can thus be computationally efficient compared to Monte Carlo algorithms especially when the state is high-dimensional. It is shown in this thesis that the skew-t filter improves the accuracy of UWB based indoor positioning and GNSS based outdoor positioning in urban areas compared to the extended KF. The skew-t filter’s computational burden is higher than that of the extended KF but of the same magnitude.Tila-avaruusmalleilla mallinnetaan järjestelmiä, joilla on tuntema-ton ajassa muuttuva tila sekä mitatattava ulostulo. Tilastollisissa tila-avaruusmalleissa järjestelmän tilan muutos tunnetaan lukuunotta-matta prosessikohinaksi kutsuttua satunnaista termiä, ja mittauk-set sisältävät satunnaista mittauskohinaa. Kalmanin suodatin sekäRauchin Tungin ja Striebelin siloitin ovat yleisesti käytettyjä sulje-tun muodon estimointialgoritmeja, jotka tuottavat tarkat bayesiläi-set suodatus- ja siloitusjakaumat diskreettiaikaisille lineaarisille ti-lastollisille tila-avaruusmalleille, joissa prosessi- ja mittauskohinatnoudattavat gaussisia jakaumia. Jos käsiteltyyn tila-avaruusmalliinkuitenkin liittyy epälineaarisia funktioita tai epägaussisia kohinoita,bayesiläisiä suodatus- ja siloitusjakaumia ei yleensä voida ratkais-ta suljetun muodon algoritmeilla. Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkitaan ap-proksimatiivista bayesiläistä aikasarjapäättelyä ja sen soveltamistakahteen paikannusongelmaan, joissa gaussinen jakauma ei mallinnariittävän hyvin kaikkea hyödyllistä tietoa tutkitun järjestelmän tilas-tollisista ominaisuuksista: kartta-avusteinen sisätilapaikannus sekäsignaalin kulkuaikamittauksiin perustuva paikannus.Sisätilakartan tuottamat liikerajoitteet voidaan liittää paikkaestimaat-tiin käyttäen partikkelisuodattimeksi kutsuttua algoritmia. Partik-kelisuodatin on Monte Carlo -algoritmi, joka soveltuu erityisesti ti-lastollisille tila-avaruusmalleille, joissa bayesiläisen posteriorijakau-man tiheysfunktio on niin monimutkainen, että sen approksimointitunnetuilla matalan parametridimension jakaumilla ei ole mielekäs-tä. Kartta-avusteisessa sisätilapaikannuksessa reitit, jotka leikkaavatseiniä tai kerrostasoja, saavat muita pienemmät todennäköisyydet.Tässä väitöskirjassa esitetään parannuksia kolmeen eri partikkelisuo-datusalgoritmiin, joita sovelletaan kartta-avusteiseen sisätilapaikan-vnukseen. Seinätörmayssuodattimessa painolliset satunnaisnäytteeteli partikkelit liikkuvat inertiasensorimittausten mukaisesti, ja sei-nään törmäävät partikkelit saavat pienet painot. Kun inertiasensori-mittauksissa on paljon kohinaa, partikkeleita voidaan ohjata siten,että seinätörmäysten määrä vähenee, jolloin suurempi osa partikke-leista vaikuttaa estimaattiin. Kun inertiasensorimittauksia ei käytetälainkaan, sisätilakartta voidaan esittää graafina, jonka kaarilla partik-kelit liikkuvat ja joka on riittävän tiheä approksimoimaan odotetta-vissa olevien reittien joukkoa.Esimerkiksi laajan taajuuskaistan radioista (UWB, ultra-wideband)tai paikannussatelliiteista saatavat radiosignaalin kulkuaikaan pe-rustuvat etäisyysmittaukset taas voivat sisältää monipolkuheijastus-ten ja suoran reitin estymisen aiheuttamia positiivismerkkisiä vir-heitä, jotka ovat huomattavan suuria useimpiin mittausvirheisiinverrattuna. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitetään laskennallisesti tehokkaitabayesiläisen suodattimen ja siloittimen approksimaatioita tilastol-lisille tila-avaruusmalleille, joissa mittauskohina noudattaa vinoat -jakaumaa. Vino t -jakauma on gaussisen jakauman laajennos, jasillä on kaksi lisäparametria, jotka vaikuttavat jakauman paksuhän-täisyyteen ja vinouteen. Kun mittauskohinaa mallintava jakaumaoletetaan paksuhäntäiseksi, optimaalinen bayesiläinen algoritmi eiole herkkä yksittäisille suurille mittausvirheille, ja kun jakauma olete-taan positiivisesti (tai negatiivisesti) vinoksi, algoritmit hyödyntävättietoa, että suurin osa suurista virheistä on positiivisia (tai negatiivi-sia). Vino t -jakauma on siis gaussista jakaumaa joustavampi, ja sillävoidaan mallintaa kulkuaikaan perustuvien mittausten virhejakau-maa tarkemmin kuin gaussisella jakaumalla. Vinolla t -jakaumalla onmyös ehdollisesti gaussinen esitys, joka soveltuu suodatus- ja siloi-tusposteriorien approksimointiin variaatio-Bayes-algoritmilla. Näinollen esitetyt algoritmit voivat olla laskennallisesti tehokkaampiakuin Monte Carlo -algoritmit erityisesti tilan ollessa korkeaulotteinen.Tässä väitöskirjassa näytetään, että vino-t -virhejakauman käyttö pa-rantaa UWB-radioon perustuvan sisätilapaikannuksen tarkkuuttasekä satelliittipohjaisen ulkopaikannuksen tarkkuutta kaupunkiym-päristössä verrattuna laajennettuun Kalmanin suodattimeen. Vino-t -suodatuksen laskennallinen vaativuus on suurempi mutta samaakertaluokkaa kuin laajennetun Kalmanin suodattimen

Estimation Algorithms for Non-Gaussian State-Space Models with Application to Positioning

State-space models (SSMs) are used to model systems with hidden time-varying state and observable measurement output. In statistical SSMs, the state dynamics is assumed known up to a random term referred to as the process noise, and the measurements contain random measurement noise. Kalman filter (KF) and Rauch– Tung–Striebel smoother (RTSS) are widely-applied closed-form algorithms that provide the parameters of the exact Bayesian filtering and smoothing distributions for discrete-time linear statistical SSMs where the process and measurement noises follow Gaussian distributions. However, when the SSM involves nonlinear functions and/or non-Gaussian noises, the Bayesian filtering and smoothing distributions cannot in general be solved using closed-form algorithms. This thesis addresses approximate Bayesian time-series inference for two positioning-related problems where the assumption of Gaussian noises cannot capture all useful knowledge of the considered system’s statistical properties: map-assisted indoor positioning and positioning using time-delay measurements.The motion constraints imposed by the indoor map are typically incorporated in the position estimate using the particle filter (PF) algorithm. The PF is a Monte Carlo algorithm especially suited for statistical SSMs where the Bayesian posterior distributions are too complicated to be adequately approximated using a well-known distribution family with a low-dimensional parameter space. In mapassisted indoor positioning, the trajectories that cross walls or floor levels get a low probability in the model. In this thesis, improvements to three different PF algorithms for map-assisted indoor positioning are proposed and compared. In the wall-collision PF, weighted random samples, also known as particles, are moved based on inertial sensor measurements, and the particles that collide with the walls are downweighted. When the inertial sensor measurements are very noisy, map information is used to guide the particles such that fewer particles collide with the walls, which implies that more particles contribute to the estimation. When no inertial sensor information is used, the particles are moved along the links of a graph that is dense enough to approximate the set of expected user paths.Time-delay based ranging measurements of e.g. ultra-wideband (UWB) and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) contain occasional positive measurement errors that are large relative to the majority of the errors due to multipath effects and denied line of sight. In this thesis, computationally efficient approximate Bayesian filters and smoothers are proposed for statistical SSMs where the measurement noise follows a skew t -distribution, and the algorithms are applied to positioning using time-delay based ranging measurements. The skew t -distribution is an extension of the Gaussian distribution, which has two additional parameters that affect the heavytailedness and skewness of the distribution. When the measurement noise model is heavy-tailed, the optimal Bayesian algorithm is robust to occasional large measurement errors, and when the model is positively (or negatively) skewed, the algorithms account for the fact that most large errors are known to be positive (or negative). Therefore, the skew t -distribution is more flexible than the Gaussian distribution and captures more statistical features of the error distributions of UWB and GNSS measurements. Furthermore, the skew t -distribution admits a conditionally Gaussian hierarchical form that enables approximating the filtering and smoothing posteriors with Gaussian distributions using variational Bayes (VB) algorithms. The proposed algorithms can thus be computationally efficient compared to Monte Carlo algorithms especially when the state is high-dimensional. It is shown in this thesis that the skew-t filter improves the accuracy of UWB based indoor positioning and GNSS based outdoor positioning in urban areas compared to the extended KF. The skew-t filter’s computational burden is higher than that of the extended KF but of the same magnitude.Tila-avaruusmalleilla mallinnetaan järjestelmiä, joilla on tuntema-ton ajassa muuttuva tila sekä mitatattava ulostulo. Tilastollisissa tila-avaruusmalleissa järjestelmän tilan muutos tunnetaan lukuunotta-matta prosessikohinaksi kutsuttua satunnaista termiä, ja mittauk-set sisältävät satunnaista mittauskohinaa. Kalmanin suodatin sekäRauchin Tungin ja Striebelin siloitin ovat yleisesti käytettyjä sulje-tun muodon estimointialgoritmeja, jotka tuottavat tarkat bayesiläi-set suodatus- ja siloitusjakaumat diskreettiaikaisille lineaarisille ti-lastollisille tila-avaruusmalleille, joissa prosessi- ja mittauskohinatnoudattavat gaussisia jakaumia. Jos käsiteltyyn tila-avaruusmalliinkuitenkin liittyy epälineaarisia funktioita tai epägaussisia kohinoita,bayesiläisiä suodatus- ja siloitusjakaumia ei yleensä voida ratkais-ta suljetun muodon algoritmeilla. Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkitaan ap-proksimatiivista bayesiläistä aikasarjapäättelyä ja sen soveltamistakahteen paikannusongelmaan, joissa gaussinen jakauma ei mallinnariittävän hyvin kaikkea hyödyllistä tietoa tutkitun järjestelmän tilas-tollisista ominaisuuksista: kartta-avusteinen sisätilapaikannus sekäsignaalin kulkuaikamittauksiin perustuva paikannus.Sisätilakartan tuottamat liikerajoitteet voidaan liittää paikkaestimaat-tiin käyttäen partikkelisuodattimeksi kutsuttua algoritmia. Partik-kelisuodatin on Monte Carlo -algoritmi, joka soveltuu erityisesti ti-lastollisille tila-avaruusmalleille, joissa bayesiläisen posteriorijakau-man tiheysfunktio on niin monimutkainen, että sen approksimointitunnetuilla matalan parametridimension jakaumilla ei ole mielekäs-tä. Kartta-avusteisessa sisätilapaikannuksessa reitit, jotka leikkaavatseiniä tai kerrostasoja, saavat muita pienemmät todennäköisyydet.Tässä väitöskirjassa esitetään parannuksia kolmeen eri partikkelisuo-datusalgoritmiin, joita sovelletaan kartta-avusteiseen sisätilapaikan-vnukseen. Seinätörmayssuodattimessa painolliset satunnaisnäytteeteli partikkelit liikkuvat inertiasensorimittausten mukaisesti, ja sei-nään törmäävät partikkelit saavat pienet painot. Kun inertiasensori-mittauksissa on paljon kohinaa, partikkeleita voidaan ohjata siten,että seinätörmäysten määrä vähenee, jolloin suurempi osa partikke-leista vaikuttaa estimaattiin. Kun inertiasensorimittauksia ei käytetälainkaan, sisätilakartta voidaan esittää graafina, jonka kaarilla partik-kelit liikkuvat ja joka on riittävän tiheä approksimoimaan odotetta-vissa olevien reittien joukkoa.Esimerkiksi laajan taajuuskaistan radioista (UWB, ultra-wideband)tai paikannussatelliiteista saatavat radiosignaalin kulkuaikaan pe-rustuvat etäisyysmittaukset taas voivat sisältää monipolkuheijastus-ten ja suoran reitin estymisen aiheuttamia positiivismerkkisiä vir-heitä, jotka ovat huomattavan suuria useimpiin mittausvirheisiinverrattuna. Tässä väitöskirjassa esitetään laskennallisesti tehokkaitabayesiläisen suodattimen ja siloittimen approksimaatioita tilastol-lisille tila-avaruusmalleille, joissa mittauskohina noudattaa vinoat -jakaumaa. Vino t -jakauma on gaussisen jakauman laajennos, jasillä on kaksi lisäparametria, jotka vaikuttavat jakauman paksuhän-täisyyteen ja vinouteen. Kun mittauskohinaa mallintava jakaumaoletetaan paksuhäntäiseksi, optimaalinen bayesiläinen algoritmi eiole herkkä yksittäisille suurille mittausvirheille, ja kun jakauma olete-taan positiivisesti (tai negatiivisesti) vinoksi, algoritmit hyödyntävättietoa, että suurin osa suurista virheistä on positiivisia (tai negatiivi-sia). Vino t -jakauma on siis gaussista jakaumaa joustavampi, ja sillävoidaan mallintaa kulkuaikaan perustuvien mittausten virhejakau-maa tarkemmin kuin gaussisella jakaumalla. Vinolla t -jakaumalla onmyös ehdollisesti gaussinen esitys, joka soveltuu suodatus- ja siloi-tusposteriorien approksimointiin variaatio-Bayes-algoritmilla. Näinollen esitetyt algoritmit voivat olla laskennallisesti tehokkaampiakuin Monte Carlo -algoritmit erityisesti tilan ollessa korkeaulotteinen.Tässä väitöskirjassa näytetään, että vino-t -virhejakauman käyttö pa-rantaa UWB-radioon perustuvan sisätilapaikannuksen tarkkuuttasekä satelliittipohjaisen ulkopaikannuksen tarkkuutta kaupunkiym-päristössä verrattuna laajennettuun Kalmanin suodattimeen. Vino-t -suodatuksen laskennallinen vaativuus on suurempi mutta samaakertaluokkaa kuin laajennetun Kalmanin suodattimen

Survey on Recent Advances in Integrated GNSSs Towards Seamless Navigation Using Multi-Sensor Fusion Technology

During the past few decades, the presence of global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) such as GPS, GLONASS, Beidou and Galileo has facilitated positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) for various outdoor applications. With the rapid increase in the number of orbiting satellites per GNSS, enhancements in the satellite-based augmentation systems (SBASs) such as EGNOS and WAAS, as well as commissioning new GNSS constellations, the PNT capabilities are maximized to reach new frontiers. Additionally, the recent developments in precise point positioning (PPP) and real time kinematic (RTK) algorithms have provided more feasibility to carrier-phase precision positioning solutions up to the third-dimensional localization. With the rapid growth of internet of things (IoT) applications, seamless navigation becomes very crucial for numerous PNT dependent applications especially in sensitive fields such as safety and industrial applications. Throughout the years, GNSSs have maintained sufficiently acceptable performance in PNT, in RTK and PPP applications however GNSS experienced major challenges in some complicated signal environments. In many scenarios, GNSS signal suffers deterioration due to multipath fading and attenuation in densely obscured environments that comprise stout obstructions. Recently, there has been a growing demand e.g. in the autonomous-things domain in adopting reliable systems that accurately estimate position, velocity and time (PVT) observables. Such demand in many applications also facilitates the retrieval of information about the six degrees of freedom (6-DOF - x, y, z, roll, pitch, and heading) movements of the target anchors. Numerous modern applications are regarded as beneficiaries of precise PNT solutions such as the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), the automatic guided vehicles (AGV) and the intelligent transportation system (ITS). Hence, multi-sensor fusion technology has become very vital in seamless navigation systems owing to its complementary capabilities to GNSSs. Fusion-based positioning in multi-sensor technology comprises the use of multiple sensors measurements for further refinement in addition to the primary GNSS, which results in high precision and less erroneous localization. Inertial navigation systems (INSs) and their inertial measurement units (IMUs) are the most commonly used technologies for augmenting GNSS in multi-sensor integrated systems. In this article, we survey the most recent literature on multi-sensor GNSS technology for seamless navigation. We provide an overall perspective for the advantages, the challenges and the recent developments of the fusion-based GNSS navigation realm as well as analyze the gap between scientific advances and commercial offerings. INS/GNSS and IMU/GNSS systems have proven to be very reliable in GNSS-denied environments where satellite signal degradation is at its peak, that is why both integrated systems are very abundant in the relevant literature. In addition, the light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems are widely adopted in the literature for its capability to provide 6-DOF to mobile vehicles and autonomous robots. LiDARs are very accurate systems however they are not suitable for low-cost positioning due to the expensive initial costs. Moreover, several other techniques from the radio frequency (RF) spectrum are utilized as multi-sensor systems such as cellular networks, WiFi, ultra-wideband (UWB) and Bluetooth. The cellular-based systems are very suitable for outdoor navigation applications while WiFi-based, UWB-based and Bluetooth-based systems are efficient in indoor positioning systems (IPS). However, to achieve reliable PVT estimations in multi-sensor GNSS navigation, optimal algorithms should be developed to mitigate the estimation errors resulting from non-line-of-sight (NLOS) GNSS situations. Examples of the most commonly used algorithms for trilateration-based positioning are Kalman filters, weighted least square (WLS), particle filters (PF) and many other hybrid algorithms by mixing one or more algorithms together. In this paper, the reviewed articles under study and comparison are presented by highlighting their motivation, the methodology of implementation, the modelling utilized and the performed experiments. Then they are assessed with respect to the published results focusing on achieved accuracy, robustness and overall implementation cost-benefits as performance metrics. Our summarizing survey assesses the most promising, highly ranked and recent articles that comprise insights into the future of GNSS technology with multi-sensor fusion technique.©2021 The Authors. Published by ION.fi=vertaisarvioimaton|en=nonPeerReviewed

Improvement Schemes for Indoor Mobile Location Estimation: A Survey

Location estimation is significant in mobile and ubiquitous computing systems. The complexity and smaller scale of the indoor environment impose a great impact on location estimation. The key of location estimation lies in the representation and fusion of uncertain information from multiple sources. The improvement of location estimation is a complicated and comprehensive issue. A lot of research has been done to address this issue. However, existing research typically focuses on certain aspects of the problem and specific methods. This paper reviews mainstream schemes on improving indoor location estimation from multiple levels and perspectives by combining existing works and our own working experiences. Initially, we analyze the error sources of common indoor localization techniques and provide a multilayered conceptual framework of improvement schemes for location estimation. This is followed by a discussion of probabilistic methods for location estimation, including Bayes filters, Kalman filters, extended Kalman filters, sigma-point Kalman filters, particle filters, and hidden Markov models. Then, we investigate the hybrid localization methods, including multimodal fingerprinting, triangulation fusing multiple measurements, combination of wireless positioning with pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR), and cooperative localization. Next, we focus on the location determination approaches that fuse spatial contexts, namely, map matching, landmark fusion, and spatial model-aided methods. Finally, we present the directions for future research

BLE Beacons for Indoor Positioning at an Interactive IoT-Based Smart Museum

The Internet of Things (IoT) can enable smart infrastructures to provide advanced services to the users. New technological advancement can improve our everyday life, even simple tasks as a visit to the museum. In this paper, an indoor localization system is presented, to enhance the user experience in a museum. In particular, the proposed system relies on Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) beacons proximity and localization capabilities to automatically provide the users with cultural contents related to the observed artworks. At the same time, an RSS-based technique is used to estimate the location of the visitor in the museum. An Android application is developed to estimate the distance from the exhibits and collect useful analytics regarding each visit and provide a recommendation to the users. Moreover, the application implements a simple Kalman filter in the smartphone, without the need of the Cloud, to improve localization precision and accuracy. Experimental results on distance estimation, location, and detection accuracy show that BLE beacon is a promising solution for an interactive smart museum. The proposed system has been designed to be easily extensible to the IoT technologies and its effectiveness has been evaluated through experimentation

Improving perception and locomotion capabilities of mobile robots in urban search and rescue missions

Nasazení mobilních robotů během zásahů záchranných složek je způsob, jak učinit práci záchranářů bezpečnější a efektivnější. Na roboty jsou ale při takovém použití kladeny vyšší nároky kvůli podmínkám, které při těchto událostech panují. Roboty se musejí pohybovat po nestabilních površích, ve stísněných prostorech nebo v kouři a prachu, což ztěžuje použití některých senzorů. Lokalizace, v robotice běžná úloha spočívající v určení polohy robotu vůči danému souřadnému systému, musí spolehlivě fungovat i za těchto ztížených podmínek. V této dizertační práci popisujeme vývoj lokalizačního systému pásového mobilního robotu, který je určen pro nasazení v případě zemětřesení nebo průmyslové havárie. Nejprve je předveden lokalizační systém, který vychází pouze z měření proprioceptivních senzorů a který vyvstal jako nejlepší varianta při porovnání několika možných uspořádání takového systému. Lokalizace je poté zpřesněna přidáním měření exteroceptivních senzorů, které zpomalují kumulaci nejistoty určení polohy robotu. Zvláštní pozornost je věnována možným výpadkům jednotlivých senzorických modalit, prokluzům pásů, které u tohoto typu robotů nevyhnutelně nastávají, výpočetním nárokům lokalizačního systému a rozdílným vzorkovacím frekvencím jednotlivých senzorů. Dále se věnujeme problému kinematických modelů pro přejíždění vertikálních překážek, což je další zdroj nepřesnosti při lokalizaci pásového robotu. Díky účasti na výzkumných projektech, jejichž členy byly hasičské sbory Itálie, Německa a Nizozemska, jsme měli přístup na cvičiště určená pro přípravu na zásahy během zemětřesení, průmyslových a dopravních nehod. Přesnost našeho lokalizačního systému jsme tedy testovali v podmínkách, které věrně napodobují ty skutečné. Soubory senzorických měření a referenčních poloh, které jsme vytvořili pro testování přesnosti lokalizace, jsou veřejně dostupné a považujeme je za jeden z přínosů naší práce. Tato dizertační práce má podobu souboru tří časopiseckých publikací a jednoho článku, který je v době jejího podání v recenzním řízení.eployment of mobile robots in search and rescue missions is a way to make job of human rescuers safer and more efficient. Such missions, however, require robots to be resilient to harsh conditions of natural disasters or human-inflicted accidents. They have to operate on unstable rough terrain, in confined spaces or in sensory-deprived environments filled with smoke or dust. Localization, a common task in mobile robotics which involves determining position and orientation with respect to a given coordinate frame, faces these conditions as well. In this thesis, we describe development of a localization system for tracked mobile robot intended for search and rescue missions. We present a proprioceptive 6-degrees-of-freedom localization system, which arose from the experimental comparison of several possible sensor fusion architectures. The system was modified to incorporate exteroceptive velocity measurements, which significantly improve accuracy by reducing a localization drift. A special attention was given to potential sensor outages and failures, to track slippage that inevitably occurs with this type of robots, to computational demands of the system and to different sampling rates sensory data arrive with. Additionally, we addressed the problem of kinematic models for tracked odometry on rough terrains containing vertical obstacles. Thanks to research projects the robot was designed for, we had access to training facilities used by fire brigades of Italy, Germany and Netherlands. Accuracy and robustness of proposed localization systems was tested in conditions closely resembling those seen in earthquake aftermath and industrial accidents. Datasets used to test our algorithms are publicly available and they are one of the contributions of this thesis. We form this thesis as a compilation of three published papers and one paper in review process

Recent Advances in Indoor Localization Systems and Technologies

Despite the enormous technical progress seen in the past few years, the maturity of indoor localization technologies has not yet reached the level of GNSS solutions. The 23 selected papers in this book present the recent advances and new developments in indoor localization systems and technologies, propose novel or improved methods with increased performance, provide insight into various aspects of quality control, and also introduce some unorthodox positioning methods

Localización de personas mediante sensores inerciales y su fusión con otras tecnologías

En el presente trabajo de Tesis se aborda el problema de la localización en entornos interiores utilizando sensores inerciales y su fusión con otras medidas para mejorar la estimación y limitar posibles derivas. Para ello, el algoritmo de localización propuesto se divide en tres partes: Una etapa de estimación del movimiento usando Pedestrian Dead Reckoning (PDR), un esquema de fusión de información que permite integrar múltiples tipos de medidas, aunque tengan relaciones no lineales, y la utilización de medidas externas (como la potencia de la señal de puntos de acceso WiFi, rangos a balizas UWB, GNSS, etc.) para limitar la deriva, proponiendo mejoras a cada una de ellas. Para mejorar el algoritmo PDR se propone la modificación del detector de apoyo utilizando un filtro de media sobre una ventana retardada. Para la estimación y corrección de errores se propone la utilización del filtro de Kalman Unscented (UKF) que simplifica los cálculos necesarios para la estimación y mejora la aproximación no lineal. Debido a la falta de información de la guiñada, una estimación PDR pura divergirá con el tiempo. Para aportar información de la orientación a la estimación se propone medir la rotación del campo magnético de acuerdo a las velocidades angulares observadas en el giróscopo. Se comprueba en varios experimentos que las mejoras evitan errores en la fase de apoyo, mejoran la estimación y disminuyen el efecto de la deriva de la orientación. Para fusionar la información del PDR con medidas externas se propone la utilización de dos esquemas: el primero, un filtro de límites que establece una distancia máxima entre 2 estimaciones, y el segundo un esquema basado en un filtro de partículas a dos etapas. El filtro de límites modifica la pdf (función de densidad de probabilidad) para evitar estimaciones muy distantes entre sí. Se comprueba que, al utilizar este método, se logra evitar la deriva un sistema PDR utilizando medidas UWB en otra parte del cuerpo. El esquema basado en un filtro de partículas utiliza la información de PDR para propagar las partículas y las medidas externas para actualizar los pesos de éstas. Se propone agregar el bias de la velocidad angular a los estados de las partículas para modelar el efecto del bias random walk (sesgo de camino aleatorio) del giróscopo. El filtro de partículas permite utilizar cualquier medida con una función de observación y una distribución de error, por lo que se estudian varios casos de estimaciones PDR fusionadas con medidas de sistemas WiFi, RFID, UWB y ZigBee. Los sistemas RF utilizados tienen un error de posicionamiento de 5 m (90 % de los casos) y la estimación PDR tiene un error creciente, pero al fusionar las estimaciones se logra un error inferior a 2 m (90 % de los casos). Por último, se utiliza el mapa del edificio para corregir las estimaciones y encauzarlas en las áreas caminables del edificio. Para ello se utiliza un método de eliminación de hipótesis (partículas) que atraviesan paredes. Este algoritmo se optimiza utilizando solo las paredes de la habitación en que se encuentra la partícula y se propone una sectorización de las operaciones para poder ser utilizada en MATLAB a tiempo real. Se demostró con señales reales que el algoritmo es capaz de auto localizar a una persona si el recorrido es no simétrico, obteniendo un nivel de error que dependerá del edificio, en nuestro caso cercano a 1 m. Si se utilizan medidas RF y el mapa, la estimación converge significativamente más rápido, y el nivel de error y el número de partículas necesarias (por ende, el tiempo de cómputo) disminuyen