Novel Evolutionary-based Methods for the Robust Training of SVR and GMDH Regressors

En los últimos años se han consolidado una serie de diferentes métodos y algoritmos para problemas de aprendizaje máquina y optimización de sistemas, que han dado lugar a toda una corriente de investigación conocida como Soft-Computing. El término de Soft-Computing hace referencia a una colección de técnicas computacionales que intenta estudiar, modelar y analizar fenómenos muy complejos, para los que los métodos convencionales no proporcionan soluciones completas, o no las proporcionan en un tiempo razonable. Dentro de lo que se considera como Soft-Computing existen una gran cantidad de técnicas tales como Redes Neuronales, Máquinas de Vectores Soporte (SVM), Redes Bayesianas, Computación Evolutiva (Algoritmos Genéticos, Algoritmos Evolutivos etc), etc. La investigación de la Tesis está enfocada en dos de estas técnicas, en primer lugar las máquinas de vectores soporte de regresión (SVR) y en segundo lugar a las GMDH (Group Method of Data Handling). Las SVM son una técnica ideada por Vapnik, basada en el principio de minimización del riesgo estructural y la teoría de los métodos kernel, que a partir de un conjunto de datos construye una regla de decisión con la cual intentar predecir nuevos valores para dicho proceso a partir de nuevas entradas. La eficiencia de los sistemas SVM ha hecho que tengan un desarrollo muy significativo en los últimos años y se hayan utilizado en una gran cantidad de aplicaciones tanto para clasificación como para problemas de regresión (SVR). Uno de los principales problemas es la búsqueda de los que se conoce como hiper-parámetros. Estos parámetros no pueden ser calculados de forma exacta, por lo que se hace necesario testear un gran número de combinaciones, para obtener unos parámetros que generen una buena función de estimación. Debido a esto el tiempo de entrenamiento suele ser elevado y no siempre los parámetros encontrados generan una buena solución: ya sea porque el algoritmo de búsqueda tenga un pobre rendimiento o porque el modelo generado está sobre-entrenado. En esta Tesis se ha desarrollado un nuevo algoritmo de tipo evolutivo para el entrenamiento con kernel multi-paramétrico. Este nuevo algoritmo tiene en cuenta un parámetro distinto, para cada una de las dimensiones del espacio de entradas. En este caso, debido al incremento del número de parámetros no puede utilizarse una búsqueda en grid clásica, debido al coste computacional que conllevaría. Por ello, en esta Tesis se propone la utilización de un algoritmo evolutivo para la obtención de los valores óptimos de los parámetros de la SVR y la aplicación de nuevas cotas para los parámetros de este kernel multi-paramétrico. Junto con esto, se han desarrollado nuevos métodos de validación que mejoren el rendimiento de las técnicas de regresión en problemas data-driven. La idea es obtener mejores modelos en la fase de entrenamiento del algoritmo, de tal forma que el desempeño con el conjunto de test mejore, principalmente en lo que a tiempo de entrenamiento se refiere y en el rendimiento general del sistema, con respecto a otros métodos de validación clásicos como son K-Fold cross-validation, etc. El otro foco de investigación de esta Tesis se encuentra en la técnica GMDH, ideada en los años 70 por Ivakhnenko. Es un método particularmente útil para problemas que requieran bajos tiempos de entrenamiento. Es un algoritmo auto-organizado, donde el modelo se genera de forma adaptativa a partir de los datos, creciendo con el tiempo en complejidad y ajustándose al problema en cuestión, hasta que el modelo alcanza un grado de complejidad óptima, es decir, no es demasiado simple ni demasiado complejo. De esta forma el algoritmo construye el modelo en base a los datos de los que dispone y no a una idea preconcebida del investigador, como ocurre en la mayoría de las técnicas de Soft-Computing. Las GMDH también tienen algunos inconvenientes como son los errores debido al sobre-entrenamiento y la multicolinealidad, esto hace que en algunas ocasiones el error sea elevado si lo comparamos con otras técnicas. Esta Tesis propone un nuevo algoritmo de construcción de estas redes basado en un algoritmo de tipo hiper-heurístico. Esta aproximación es un concepto nuevo relacionado con la computación evolutiva, que codifica varios heurísticos que pueden ser utilizados de forma secuencial para resolver un problema de optimización. En nuestro caso particular, varios heurísticos básicos se codifican en un algoritmo evolutivo, para crear una solución hiper-heurística que permita construir redes GMDH robustas en problemas de regresión. Todas las propuestas y métodos desarrollados en esta Tesis han sido evaluados experimentalmente en problemas benchmark, así como en aplicaciones de regresión reales

Characterization of atmospheric pollution dynamics in Spain by means of air quality modelling

Atmospheric pollution causes large impacts on human health and societal economic interests and it is a threat for the ecosystems and the climate of the Earth. Improving the understanding of pollution dynamics is necessary to desing efficient air quality strategies that reduce the impacts of air pollution. This Ph.D. Thesis identifies the typical atmospheric conditions at synoptic scale that affect the Iberian Peninsula (IP) and uses them to explain the dynamics of the most relevant gaseous pollutants in Spain (nitrogen dioxide NO2, sulphur dioxide SO2, and ozone O3) by means of air quality modelling. Circulation type classifications (CTC) summarise the continuum of atmospheric circulation into a discrete number of typical circulation types (CTs). For the 1983-2012 climatic period, a CTC is derived to be useful in the characterization of air quality dynamics over the IP. Sensitivity tests to classification techniques (principal components, correlation analysis, clustering) and other factors affecting the CTC (temporal and spatial resolution, domain size, etc.) are performed to objectivize the choice of the automatic set-up that maximizes its quality. The six identified CTs -described in terms of frequency, persistence, transitions, and location of pressure systems- are consistent with CTs found in the literature. The temporal stability of the CTC, evaluated following a cross-validation process that compares the results of the climatic and yearly CTs, leads to the identification of a representative year (2012). A representative day for each CT in 2012 is identified using an objective score that minimizes the differences of the daily and the average surface pressure CT grid. The study of NO2, SO2, and O3 dynamics performed on the representative day of each CT focuses on the biggest Spanish urban areas (Madrid and Barcelona) and heavy industrial/electricity-generation areas such as Asturias (northern Spain) and the Algeciras bay (southern Spain). The state-of-the-art CALIOPE Air Quality Forecast System (CALIOPE-AQFS) that provides high-resolution data on emissions, meteorology, and pollutant concentration over Spain is the main tool used in the characterisation of pollution dynamics. The modelling system is also used to quantify the contribution of specific sources of pollutants -coal-fired power plants and on-road transport- by means of a brute-force approach and an emission-based source apportionment, respectively. The CTs control the transport patterns of SO2/NO2/O3 in Spanish continental and Atlantic areas, whereas in Mediterranean coastal areas and over complex-terrains a combination of synoptic and mesoscale dynamics (sea-land and mountain-valley breezes) explains the pollutant concentration patterns. The power plants' contribution to surface concentration (up to 55 µgSO2 m-3 and 32 µgNO2 m-3) occurs mainly close to the source (< 20 km) related to vertical diffusion when the emission is injected within the planetary boundary layer. However, the SO2/NO2 plumes can reach distances higher than 250 km. The daily maximum O3 concentration attributed to the on-road transport emissions from Madrid and Barcelona contribute up to 24% and 8% to total O3 concentration, respectively, but it is particularly significant (up to 80-100 µg m-3 in an hour) to the O3 concentration peak during the central hours of the day in April-September. The long-range transport of O3 to the IP is controlled by the CTs and its concentration is very significant in the area of influence of Madrid and Barcelona, particularly under cold CTs (70-96%). This Ph.D. Thesis has proven that CALIOPE-AQFS (1) is useful to characterise the 3-D dynamics of primary and secondary pollutants in Spain under typical CTs; (2) is able to attribute and quantify air pollution to its sources via brute force and source apportionment; and (3) has the potential to help in the design of specific, science-based abatement strategies that minimize air pollution impacts.La contaminación atmosférica genera perjuicios en la salud humana, en los intereses económicos de la sociedad y constituye una amenaza para los ecosistemas y el clima de la Tierra. Avanzar en la comprensión de la dinámica de la contaminación facilita el diseño de estrategias de calidad del aire que reduzcan sus impactos. Esta Tesis Doctoral identifica objetivamente patrones típicos de circulación atmosférica (PT) que afectan a la Península Ibérica (PI) a escala sinóptica para explicar la dinámica de los principales contaminantes gaseosos en España (dióxido de nitrógeno NO2, dióxido de azufre SO2 y ozono O3) mediante modelización de la calidad del aire. Las clasificaciones sinópticas (CS) discretizan el continuo de la circulación atmosférica en un catálogo de PT. Para el período climático 1983-2012, se establece una CS útil para el estudio de la dinámica de la contaminación atmosférica en la PI. Tests de sensibilidad para técnicas automáticas de clasificación (análisis de componentes principales, de correlación y clustering) y para otros factores que afectan a la CS (resolución temporal y espacial, tamaño del dominio, etc.) objetivizan la elección de la configuración que maximiza su calidad. Los seis PT identificados - descritos en términos de frecuencia, persistencia, transiciones y ubicación de los sistemas de presión - son consistentes con la literatura. La evaluación de la estabilidad temporal de la clasificación, mediante un proceso de validación cruzada que compara los PT climáticos con PT identificados en CS anuales, permite identificar un año representativo (2012). Un día representativo de cada PT es elegido gracias a un algoritmo que minimiza las diferencias de la malla de presiones diaria respecto de la del PT promedio. El estudio de la dinámica de NO2, SO2 y O3 se realiza en el día representativo de cada PT focalizando en las principales áreas urbanas de España (Madrid y Barcelona) y en importantes áreas industriales y/o de generación eléctrica (Asturias, bahía de Algeciras). El sistema de CALIdad del aire OPeracional para España (CALIOPE) que proporciona datos de alta resolución sobre emisiones, meteorología y concentración de contaminantes es la principal herramienta utilizada en el estudio. CALIOPE permite cuantificar la contribución de determinadas fuentes de emisión, centrales térmicas de carbón y transporte rodado, mediante un enfoque de fuerza bruta y de asignación de fuentes, respectivamente. Los PT controlan el transporte de SO2/NO2/O3 en áreas atlánticas y continentales de España mientras que en zonas costeras mediterráneas y/o de topografía compleja, una combinación de procesos sinópticos y de mesoescala (brisas marinas y de valle) explica los patrones de contaminación. La contribución de SO2 y NO2 de las centrales térmicas a la concentración en superficie (hasta 55 µg m-3 y 32 µg m-3, respectivamente) se produce principalmente cerca de la fuente (<20 km) por difusión vertical de la emisión cuando ésta se inyecta en la capa límite planetaria. Sin embargo, los penachos de SO2/NO2 pueden alcanzar distancias superiores a los 250 km. La contribución máxima diaria de O3 atribuido a emisiones del transporte rodado de Madrid y Barcelona alcanza el 24% y el 8%, respectivamente pero es particularmente significativa (hasta 80-100 µg m-3 en una hora) a mediodía durante el pico de concentración de O3. El transporte a larga distancia de O3 hacia la PI es controlado por los PT y su contribución es muy importante en el área de influencia de Madrid y Barcelona, en particular bajo los PT fríos (70-96%). Esta Tesis Doctoral ha demostrado que CALIOPE es (1) útil para caracterizar la dinámica 3-D de contaminantes primarios y secundarios en España bajo diferentes PT; (2) capaz de atribuir y cuantificar la contaminación a sus fuentes a través de fuerza bruta y atribución de fuentes; y (3) potencialmente útil en el diseño de estrategias de mitigación específicas que minimicen los impactos de la contaminación atmosférica.Postprint (published version

Global and direct solar radiation at surface over Iberian Peninsula: variability, trends and forecasting

Besides being the key to Earth's climate, global solar radiation at the surface ( ) is one of the most valuable renewable resources. This way, an adequate knowledge of the solar resource is critical as an assessment for a strategic planning of projects related to the production of solar energy. Therefore, the main goals of this thesis is to analyze past changes and variability of solar radiation fluxes in Portugal and Iberia Peninsula (IP) using observational available measurements, ERA−40 and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis datasets and, predict and characterize the solar radiation at the surface over Iberian Peninsula based on numerical weather prediction models. In a first part, this study is dedicated to the analysis of temporal and spatial variability of based on ground-based stations, as well as in ERA−40 and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis. Parametric and non-parametric tests are applied to detect trends in both reanalysis and ground-based observations. Cloud cover obtained from reanalysis is also used to examine the possible causes of the observed long-term changes in . In a second stage, is presented an assessment of the W model at high resolution ( 5 ) against observations and with another configuration. After a bias removal process, a and cloud cover climatology was obtained for IP (1950−2010 period). Finally, the performance of IFS/ECMWF is evaluated to predict Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) over Évora city at very short (1 hour) and short term (1 to 3 days), for one year period. It is also described a new methodology to compute DNI attenuation using in situ observational data in order to estimate the transparency of the atmosphere in the absence of cloud cover datasets. To improve IFS/ECMWF outputs is also tested a bias correction methodology; Resumo: A Radiação Solar Global e Direta à Superfície na Península Ibérica: Variabilidade, Tendências e Previsão A radiação solar é um dos recursos energéticos renováveis mais valiosos. Na Península Ibérica (PI) estão em instalação muitos sistemas comerciais e de investigação para o aproveitamento da energia solar. Neste contexto, o conhecimento do fluxo de radiação solar que incide na superfície terrestre e da sua evolução torna-se de extrema importância. Pretende-se com este trabalho estudar a distribuição espacial, a variabilidade e as tendências da radiação solar de pequeno comprimento de onda ( ) à superfície, na PI e em Portugal, a partir de dados observacionais e das reanálises ERA−40/NCEP assim como, prever e caracterizar a radiação com base em modelos de previsão numérica do tempo. Na primeira parte deste estudo, efetua-se uma análise da variabilidade temporal e espacial da radiação recorrendo a estações terrestres, bem como a dados de reanálise ERA−40 e NCEP/NCAR. Para o efeito utilizam-se testes paramétricos e não paramétricos a fim de detetar tendências nas séries em estudo. A cobertura de nuvens obtida a partir das reanálises é também usada para avaliar as possíveis causas da variabilidade da radiação observada. Numa segunda etapa do estudo, obteve-se uma climatologia a 5 de resolução da radiação solar à superfície com base em simulações com o modelo regional − , para a PI, e para o período 1950−2010. Os resultados das simulações foram validados recorrendo a estações de observação e a uma outra simulação , com outra configuração, previamente validada. Na construção da climatologia e de nuvens foi aplicado um método de pós-processamento para remoção do viés. Finalmente, avalia-se o desempenho do modelo IFS, do ECMWF na previsão da radiação DNI a curto e médio prazo, sobre a região. Propõe-se uma nova metodologia para estimar a transparência da atmosfera e testa-se uma metodologia de correção de viés

Izaña Atmospheric Research Center. Activity Report 2015-2016

This report is a summary of the many activities at the Izaña Atmospheric Research Center to the broader community. The combination of operational activities, research and development in state-of-the-art measurement techniques, calibration and validation and international cooperation encompass the vision of WMO to provide world leadership in expertise and international cooperation in weather, climate, hydrology and related environmental issues

Desing and optimization of artificial neural network models for solar resource assessment

[ES]El objetivo de la tesis es desarrollar varios modelos basados en redes neuronales artificiales para evaluar el recurso solar a nivel diario y horario, generando estimaciones fiables de GHI y de DNI en zonas geográficas extensas. Como variables de entrada se utilizan imágenes de satélite y productos globales de reanálisis, que cubren todo el globo o áreas geográficas muy extensas. Los dos primeros modelos generan estimaciones diarias de GHI. El primero utiliza como variables de entrada datos de los reanálisis ERA-Interim del ECMWF. El segundo modelo utiliza imágenes del satélite Meteosat 9, que tienen una mayor resolución espacial y temporal. Los otros dos modelos son ensambles de redes neuronales optimizadas para generar estimaciones horarias de GHI y DNI respectivamente, a partir de los 11 canales espectrales del satélite Meteosat 9. Ambos modelos han sido evaluados en una región muy extensa (casi toda Europa y parte de África y Oriente Medio).[EN]The aim of the thesis is the design and development of artificial neural network models for solar resource assessment, deriving reliable GHI and DNI estimates over large areas. Satellite imagery and reanalysis products, covering the whole globe or extensive areas, are used as input variables. The first two models generate daily GHI estimates. The first one uses ECMWF ERA-Interim data as input variables. The second one uses Meteosat-9 images, with better spatial and temporal resolution. The other two models are artificial neural network ensemble models for estimating hourly GHI and DNI respectively, using eleven Meteosat-9 spectral channels. Both models have been validated in a large region, covering mainly Europe and part of Africa and Middle East.Tesis Univ. Jaén. Departamento de Física, leída el 7 de julio de 201

Assessment of ozone variations and meteorological effects in an urban area in the Mediterranean Coast

Abstract Ozone concentrations are valuable indicators of possible health and environmental impacts. However, they are also used to monitor changes and trends in the sources of both ozone and its precursors. For this purpose, the influence of meteorological variables is a confusing factor. This study presents an analysis of a year of ozone concentrations measured in a coastal Spanish city. Firstly, the aim of this study was to perceive the daily, monthly and seasonal variation patterns of ozone concentrations. Diurnal cycles are presented by season and the fit of the data to a normal distribution is tested. In order to assess ozone behaviour under temperate weather conditions, local meteorological variables (wind direction and speed, temperature, relative humidity, pressure and rainfall) were monitored together with ozone concentrations. The main relationships we could observe in these analyses were then used to obtain a regression equation linking diurnal ozone concentrations in summer with meteorological parameters.

Desert dust outbreak in the Canary Islands (February 2020): assessment and impacts

World Weather Research Programme (WWRP 2021–1

Air Pollution Meteorology

Although air pollution is usually linked with human activities, natural processes may also lead to major concentrations of hazardous substances in the low atmosphere. Pollutant levels may be reduced when emissions can be controlled. However, the impact of meteorological variables on the concentrations measured may be noticeable, and these variables cannot be controlled. This book is devoted to the influence of meteorological processes on the pollutant concentrations recorded in the low atmosphere. Measurements, cycles, statistical procedures, as well as specific variables such as the synoptic pattern, temperature inversion, or the calculation of back-trajectories, are considered in the studies included in this book to highlight the relationship between air pollution and meteorological variables. In addition, the state of the art of this subject following meteorological scales, from micro to macro-scale, is presented. Consequently, this book focuses on applied science and seeks to further current knowledge of what contribution meteorological processes make to the concentrations measured in order to achieve greater control over air pollution

State of the climate in 2018

In 2018, the dominant greenhouse gases released into Earth’s atmosphere—carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—continued their increase. The annual global average carbon dioxide concentration at Earth’s surface was 407.4 ± 0.1 ppm, the highest in the modern instrumental record and in ice core records dating back 800 000 years. Combined, greenhouse gases and several halogenated gases contribute just over 3 W m−2 to radiative forcing and represent a nearly 43% increase since 1990. Carbon dioxide is responsible for about 65% of this radiative forcing. With a weak La Niña in early 2018 transitioning to a weak El Niño by the year’s end, the global surface (land and ocean) temperature was the fourth highest on record, with only 2015 through 2017 being warmer. Several European countries reported record high annual temperatures. There were also more high, and fewer low, temperature extremes than in nearly all of the 68-year extremes record. Madagascar recorded a record daily temperature of 40.5°C in Morondava in March, while South Korea set its record high of 41.0°C in August in Hongcheon. Nawabshah, Pakistan, recorded its highest temperature of 50.2°C, which may be a new daily world record for April. Globally, the annual lower troposphere temperature was third to seventh highest, depending on the dataset analyzed. The lower stratospheric temperature was approximately fifth lowest. The 2018 Arctic land surface temperature was 1.2°C above the 1981–2010 average, tying for third highest in the 118-year record, following 2016 and 2017. June’s Arctic snow cover extent was almost half of what it was 35 years ago. Across Greenland, however, regional summer temperatures were generally below or near average. Additionally, a satellite survey of 47 glaciers in Greenland indicated a net increase in area for the first time since records began in 1999. Increasing permafrost temperatures were reported at most observation sites in the Arctic, with the overall increase of 0.1°–0.2°C between 2017 and 2018 being comparable to the highest rate of warming ever observed in the region. On 17 March, Arctic sea ice extent marked the second smallest annual maximum in the 38-year record, larger than only 2017. The minimum extent in 2018 was reached on 19 September and again on 23 September, tying 2008 and 2010 for the sixth lowest extent on record. The 23 September date tied 1997 as the latest sea ice minimum date on record. First-year ice now dominates the ice cover, comprising 77% of the March 2018 ice pack compared to 55% during the 1980s. Because thinner, younger ice is more vulnerable to melting out in summer, this shift in sea ice age has contributed to the decreasing trend in minimum ice extent. Regionally, Bering Sea ice extent was at record lows for almost the entire 2017/18 ice season. For the Antarctic continent as a whole, 2018 was warmer than average. On the highest points of the Antarctic Plateau, the automatic weather station Relay (74°S) broke or tied six monthly temperature records throughout the year, with August breaking its record by nearly 8°C. However, cool conditions in the western Bellingshausen Sea and Amundsen Sea sector contributed to a low melt season overall for 2017/18. High SSTs contributed to low summer sea ice extent in the Ross and Weddell Seas in 2018, underpinning the second lowest Antarctic summer minimum sea ice extent on record. Despite conducive conditions for its formation, the ozone hole at its maximum extent in September was near the 2000–18 mean, likely due to an ongoing slow decline in stratospheric chlorine monoxide concentration. Across the oceans, globally averaged SST decreased slightly since the record El Niño year of 2016 but was still far above the climatological mean. On average, SST is increasing at a rate of 0.10° ± 0.01°C decade−1 since 1950. The warming appeared largest in the tropical Indian Ocean and smallest in the North Pacific. The deeper ocean continues to warm year after year. For the seventh consecutive year, global annual mean sea level became the highest in the 26-year record, rising to 81 mm above the 1993 average. As anticipated in a warming climate, the hydrological cycle over the ocean is accelerating: dry regions are becoming drier and wet regions rainier. Closer to the equator, 95 named tropical storms were observed during 2018, well above the 1981–2010 average of 82. Eleven tropical cyclones reached Saffir–Simpson scale Category 5 intensity. North Atlantic Major Hurricane Michael’s landfall intensity of 140 kt was the fourth strongest for any continental U.S. hurricane landfall in the 168-year record. Michael caused more than 30 fatalities and $25 billion (U.S. dollars) in damages. In the western North Pacific, Super Typhoon Mangkhut led to 160 fatalities and$6 billion (U.S. dollars) in damages across the Philippines, Hong Kong, Macau, mainland China, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Tropical Storm Son-Tinh was responsible for 170 fatalities in Vietnam and Laos. Nearly all the islands of Micronesia experienced at least moderate impacts from various tropical cyclones. Across land, many areas around the globe received copious precipitation, notable at different time scales. Rodrigues and Réunion Island near southern Africa each reported their third wettest year on record. In Hawaii, 1262 mm precipitation at Waipā Gardens (Kauai) on 14–15 April set a new U.S. record for 24-h precipitation. In Brazil, the city of Belo Horizonte received nearly 75 mm of rain in just 20 minutes, nearly half its monthly average. Globally, fire activity during 2018 was the lowest since the start of the record in 1997, with a combined burned area of about 500 million hectares. This reinforced the long-term downward trend in fire emissions driven by changes in land use in frequently burning savannas. However, wildfires burned 3.5 million hectares across the United States, well above the 2000–10 average of 2.7 million hectares. Combined, U.S. wildfire damages for the 2017 and 2018 wildfire seasons exceeded $40 billion (U.S. dollars)