Biosignal‐based human–machine interfaces for assistance and rehabilitation : a survey

As a definition, Human–Machine Interface (HMI) enables a person to interact with a device. Starting from elementary equipment, the recent development of novel techniques and unobtrusive devices for biosignals monitoring paved the way for a new class of HMIs, which take such biosignals as inputs to control various applications. The current survey aims to review the large literature of the last two decades regarding biosignal‐based HMIs for assistance and rehabilitation to outline state‐of‐the‐art and identify emerging technologies and potential future research trends. PubMed and other databases were surveyed by using specific keywords. The found studies were further screened in three levels (title, abstract, full‐text), and eventually, 144 journal papers and 37 conference papers were included. Four macrocategories were considered to classify the different biosignals used for HMI control: biopotential, muscle mechanical motion, body motion, and their combinations (hybrid systems). The HMIs were also classified according to their target application by considering six categories: prosthetic control, robotic control, virtual reality control, gesture recognition, communication, and smart environment control. An ever‐growing number of publications has been observed over the last years. Most of the studies (about 67%) pertain to the assistive field, while 20% relate to rehabilitation and 13% to assistance and rehabilitation. A moderate increase can be observed in studies focusing on robotic control, prosthetic control, and gesture recognition in the last decade. In contrast, studies on the other targets experienced only a small increase. Biopotentials are no longer the leading control signals, and the use of muscle mechanical motion signals has experienced a considerable rise, especially in prosthetic control. Hybrid technologies are promising, as they could lead to higher performances. However, they also increase HMIs’ complex-ity, so their usefulness should be carefully evaluated for the specific application

Review of real brain-controlled wheelchairs

This paper presents a review of the state of the art regarding wheelchairs driven by a brain-computer interface (BCI). Using a brain-controlled wheelchair (BCW), disabled users could handle a wheelchair through their brain activity, granting autonomy to move through an experimental environment. A classification is established, based on the characteristics of the BCW, such as the type of electroencephalographic (EEG) signal used, the navigation system employed by the wheelchair, the task for the participants, or the metrics used to evaluate the performance. Furthermore, these factors are compared according to the type of signal used, in order to clarify the differences among them. Finally, the trend of current research in this field is discussed, as well as the challenges that should be solved in the future

Development of a practical and mobile brain-computer communication device for profoundly paralyzed individuals

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Boston UniversityBrain-computer interface (BCI) technology has seen tremendous growth over the past several decades, with numerous groundbreaking research studies demonstrating technical viability (Sellers et al., 2010; Silvoni et al., 2011). Despite this progress, BCIs have remained primarily in controlled laboratory settings. This dissertation proffers a blueprint for translating research-grade BCI systems into real-world applications that are noninvasive and fully portable, and that employ intelligent user interfaces for communication. The proposed architecture is designed to be used by severely motor-impaired individuals, such as those with locked-in syndrome, while reducing the effort and cognitive load needed to communicate. Such a system requires the merging of two primary research fields: 1) electroencephalography (EEG)-based BCIs and 2) intelligent user interface design. The EEG-based BCI portion of this dissertation provides a history of the field, details of our software and hardware implementation, and results from an experimental study aimed at verifying the utility of a BCI based on the steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP), a robust brain response to visual stimulation at controlled frequencies. The visual stimulation, feature extraction, and classification algorithms for the BCI were specially designed to achieve successful real-time performance on a laptop computer. Also, the BCI was developed in Python, an open-source programming language that combines programming ease with effective handling of hardware and software requirements. The result of this work was The Unlock Project app software for BCI development. Using it, a four-choice SSVEP BCI setup was implemented and tested with five severely motor-impaired and fourteen control participants. The system showed a wide range of usability across participants, with classification rates ranging from 25-95%. The second portion of the dissertation discusses the viability of intelligent user interface design as a method for obtaining a more user-focused vocal output communication aid tailored to motor-impaired individuals. A proposed blueprint of this communication "app" was developed in this dissertation. It would make use of readily available laptop sensors to perform facial recognition, speech-to-text decoding, and geo-location. The ultimate goal is to couple sensor information with natural language processing to construct an intelligent user interface that shapes communication in a practical SSVEP-based BCI

The potential of error-related potentials. Analysis and decoding for control, neuro-rehabilitation and motor substitution

Las interfaces cerebro-máquina (BMIs, por sus siglas en inglés) permiten la decodificación de patrones de activación neuronal del cerebro de los usuarios para proporcionar a personas con movilidad severamente limitada, ya sea debido a un accidente o a una enfermedad neurodegenerativa, una forma de establecer una conexión directa entre su cerebro y un dispositivo. En este sentido, las BMIs basadas en técnicas no invasivas, como el electroencefalograma (EEG) han ofrecido a estos usuarios nuevas oportunidades para recuperar el control sobre las actividades de su vida diaria que de otro modo no podrían realizar, especialmente en las áreas de comunicación y control de su entorno.En los últimos años, la tecnología está avanzando a grandes pasos y con ella la complejidad de dispositivos ha incrementado significativamente, ampliando el número de posibilidades para controlar sofisticados dispositivos robóticos, prótesis con numerosos grados de libertad o incluso para la aplicación de complejos patrones de estimulación eléctrica en las propias extremidades paralizadas de un usuario, que le permitan ejecutar movimientos precisos. Sin embargo, la cantidad de información que se puede transmitir entre el cerebro y estos dispositivos sigue siendo muy limitada, tanto por el número como por la velocidad a la que se pueden decodificar los comandos neuronales. Por lo tanto, depender únicamente de las señales neuronales no garantiza un control óptimo y preciso.Para poder sacar el máximo partido de estas tecnologías, el campo de las BMIs adoptó el conocido enfoque de “control-compartido". Esta estrategia de control pretende crear un sistema de cooperación entre el usuario y un dispositivo inteligente, liberando al usuario de las tareas más pesadas requeridas para ejecutar la tarea sin llegar a perder la sensación de estar en control. De esta manera, los usuarios solo necesitan centrar su atención en los comandos de alto nivel (por ejemplo, elegir un elemento específico que agarrar, o elegir el destino final donde moverse) mientras el agente inteligente resuelve problemas de bajo nivel (como planificación de trayectorias, esquivar obstáculos, etc.) que permitan realizar la tarea designada de la manera óptima.En particular, esta tesis gira en torno a una señal neuronal cognitiva de alto nivel originada como la falta de coincidencia entre las expectativas del usuario y las acciones reales ejecutadas por los dispositivos inteligentes. Estas señales, denominadas potenciales de error (ErrPs), se consideran una forma natural de intercomunicar nuestro cerebro con máquinas y, por lo tanto, los usuarios solo requieren monitorizar las acciones de un dispositivo y evaluar mentalmente si este último se comporta correctamente o no. Esto puede verse como una forma de supervisar el comportamiento del dispositivo, en el que la decodificación de estas evaluaciones mentales se utiliza para proporcionar a estos dispositivos retroalimentación directamente relacionada con la ejecución de una tarea determinada para que puedan aprender y adaptarse a las preferencias del usuario.Dado que la respuesta neuronal de ErrP está asociada a un evento exógeno (dispositivo que comete una acción errónea), la mayoría de los trabajos desarrollados han intentado distinguir si una acción es correcta o errónea mediante la explotación de eventos discretos en escenarios bien controlados. Esta tesis presenta el primer intento de cambiar hacia configuraciones asíncronas que se centran en tareas relacionadas con el aumento de las capacidades motoras, con el objetivo de desarrollar interfaces para usuarios con movilidad limitada. En este tipo de configuraciones, dos desafíos importantes son que los eventos correctos o erróneos no están claramente definidos y los usuarios tienen que evaluar continuamente la tarea ejecutada, mientras que la clasificación de las señales EEG debe realizarse de forma asíncrona. Como resultado, los decodificadores tienen que lidiar constantemente con la actividad EEG de fondo, que típicamente conduce a una gran cantidad de errores de detección de firmas de error. Para superar estos desafíos, esta tesis aborda dos líneas principales de trabajo.Primero, explora la neurofisiología de las señales neuronales evocadas asociadas con la percepción de errores durante el uso interactivo de un BMI en escenarios continuos y más realistas.Se realizaron dos estudios para encontrar características alternativas basadas en el dominio de la frecuencia como una forma de lidiar con la alta variabilidad de las señales del EEG. Resultados, revelaron que existe un patrón estable representado como oscilaciones "theta" que mejoran la generalización durante la clasificación. Además, se utilizaron técnicas de aprendizaje automático de última generación para aplicar el aprendizaje de transferencia para discriminar asincrónicamente los errores cuando se introdujeron de forma gradual y no se conoce presumiblemente el inicio que desencadena los ErrPs. Además, los análisis de neurofisiología arrojan algo de luz sobre los mecanismos cognitivos subyacentes que provocan ErrP durante las tareas continuas, lo que sugiere la existencia de modelos neuronales en nuestro cerebro que acumulan evidencia y solo toman una decisión al alcanzar un cierto umbral. En segundo lugar, esta tesis evalúa la implementación de estos potenciales relacionados con errores en tres aplicaciones orientadas al usuario. Estos estudios no solo exploran cómo maximizar el rendimiento de decodificación de las firmas ErrP, sino que también investigan los mecanismos neuronales subyacentes y cómo los diferentes factores afectan las señales provocadas.La primera aplicación de esta tesis presenta una nueva forma de guiar a un robot móvil que se mueve en un entorno continuo utilizando solo potenciales de error como retroalimentación que podrían usarse para el control directo de dispositivos de asistencia. Con este propósito, proponemos un algoritmo basado en el emparejamiento de políticas para el aprendizaje de refuerzo inverso para inferir el objetivo del usuario a partir de señales cerebrales.La segunda aplicación presentada en esta tesis contempla los primeros pasos hacia un BCI híbrido para ejecutar distintos tipos de agarre de objetos, con el objetivo de ayudar a las personas que han perdido la funcionalidad motora de su extremidad superior. Este BMI combina la decodificación del tipo de agarre a partir de señales de EEG obtenidas del espectro de baja frecuencia con los potenciales de error provocados como resultado de la monitorización de movimientos de agarre erróneos. Los resultados muestran que, en efecto los ErrP aparecen en combinaciones de señales motoras originadas a partir de movimientos de agarre consistentes en una única repetición. Además, la evaluación de los diferentes factores involucrados en el diseño de la interfaz híbrida (como la velocidad de los estímulos, el tipo de agarre o la tarea mental) muestra cómo dichos factores afectan la morfología del subsiguiente potencial de error evocado.La tercera aplicación investiga los correlatos neuronales y los procesos cognitivos subyacentes asociados con desajustes somatosensoriales producidos por perturbaciones inesperadas durante la estimulación eléctrica neuromuscular en el brazo de un usuario. Este estudio simula los posibles errores que ocurren durante la terapia de neuro-rehabilitación, en la que la activación simultánea de la estimulación aferente mientras los sujetos se concentran en la realización de una tarea motora es crucial para una recuperación óptima. Los resultados muestran que los errores pueden aumentar la atención del sujeto en la tarea y desencadenar mecanismos de aprendizaje que al mismo tiempo podrían promover la neuroplasticidad motora.En resumen, a lo largo de esta tesis, se han diseñado varios paradigmas experimentales para mejorar la comprensión de cómo se generan los potenciales relacionados con errores durante el uso interactivo de BMI en aplicaciones orientadas al usuario. Se han propuesto diferentes métodos para pasar de la configuración bloqueada en el tiempo a la asíncrona, tanto en términos de decodificación como de percepción de los eventos erróneos; y ha explorado tres aplicaciones relacionadas con el aumento de las capacidades motoras, en las cuales los ErrPs se pueden usar para el control de dispositivos, la sustitución de motores y la neuro-rehabilitación.Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) allow the decoding of cortical activation patterns from the users brain to provide people with severely limited mobility, due to an accident or disease, a way to establish a direct connection between their brain and a device. In this sense, BMIs based in noninvasive recordings, such as the electroencephalogram (EEG) have o↵ered these users new opportunities to regain control over activities of their daily life that they could not perform otherwise, especially in the areas of communication and control of their environment. Over the past years and with the latest technological advancements, devices have significantly grown on complexity expanding the number of possibilities to control complex robotic devices, prosthesis with numerous degrees of freedom or even to apply compound patterns of electrical stimulation on the subjects own paralyzed extremities to execute precise movements. However, the band-with of communication between brain and devices is still very limited, both in terms of the number and the speed at which neural commands can be decoded, and thus solely relying on neural signals do not guarantee accurate control them. In order to benefit of these technologies, the field of BMIs adopted the well-known approach of shared-control. This strategy intends to create a cooperation system between the user and an intelligent device, liberating the user from the burdensome parts of the task without losing the feeling of being in control. Here, users only need to focus their attention on high-level commands (e.g. choose the final destination to reach, or a specific item to grab) while the intelligent agent resolve low-level problems (e.g. trajectory planning, obstacle avoidance, etc) to perform the designated task in the optimal way. In particular, this thesis revolves around a high-level cognitive neural signal originated as the mismatch between the expectations of the user and the actual actions executed by the intelligent devices. These signals, denoted as error-related potentials (ErrPs), are thought as a natural way to intercommunicate our brain with machines and thus users only require to monitor the actions of a device and mentally assess whether the latter is behaving correctly or not. This can be seen as a way to supervise the device’s behavior, in which the decoding of these mental assessments is used to provide these devices with feedback directly related with the performance of a given task so they can learn and adapt to the user’s preferences. Since the ErrP’s neural response is associated to an exogenous event (device committing an erroneous action), most of the developed works have attempted to distinguish whether an action is correct or erroneous by exploiting discrete events under well-controlled scenarios. This thesis presents the first attempt to shift towards asynchronous settings that focus on tasks related with the augmentation of motor capabilities, with the objective of developing interfaces for users with limited mobility. In this type of setups, two important challenges are that correct or erroneous events are not clearly defined and users have to continuously evaluate the executed task, while classification of EEG signals has to be performed asynchronously. As a result, the decoders have to constantly deal with background EEG activity, which typically leads to a large number of missdetection of error signatures. To overcome these challenges, this thesis addresses two main lines of work. First, it explores the neurophysiology of the evoked neural signatures associated with the perception of errors during the interactive use of a BMI in continuous and more realistic scenarios. Two studies were performed to find alternative features based on the frequency domain as a way of dealing with the high variability of EEG signals. Results, revealed that there exists a stable pattern represented as theta oscillations that enhance generalization during classification. Also, state-of-the-art machine learning techniques were used to apply transfer learning to asynchronously discriminate errors when they were introduced in a gradual fashion and the onset that triggers the ErrPs is not presumably known. Furthermore, neurophsysiology analyses shed some light about the underlying cognitive mechanisms that elicit ErrP during continuous tasks, suggesting the existence of neural models in our brain that accumulate evidence and only take a decision upon reaching a certain threshold. Secondly, this thesis evaluates the implementation of these error-related potentials in three user-oriented applications. These studies not only explore how to maximize the decoding performance of ErrP signatures but also investigate the underlying neural mechanisms and how di↵erent factors a↵ect the elicited signals. The first application of this thesis presents a new way to guide a mobile robot moving in a continuous environment using only error potentials as feedback which could be used for the direct control of assistive devices. With this purpose, we propose an algorithm based on policy matching for inverse reinforcement learning to infer the user goal from brain signals. The second application presented in this thesis contemplates the first steps towards a hybrid BMI for grasping oriented to assist people who have lost motor functionality of their upper-limb. This BMI combines the decoding of the type of grasp from low-frequency EEG signals with error-related potentials elicited as the result of monitoring an erroneous grasping. The results show that ErrPs are elicited in combination of motor signatures from the low-frequency spectrum originated from single repetition grasping tasks and evaluates how di↵erent design factors (such as the speed of the stimuli, type of grasp or mental task) impact the morphology of the subsequent evoked ErrP. The third application investigates the neural correlates and the underlying cognitive processes associated with somatosensory mismatches produced by unexpected disturbances during neuromsucular electrical stimulation on a user’s arm. This study simulates possible errors that occur during neurorehabilitation therapy, in which the simultaneous activation of a↵erent stimulation while the subjects are concentrated in performing a motor task is crucial for optimal recovery. The results showed that errors may increase subject’s attention on the task and trigger learning mechanisms that at the same time could promote motor neuroplasticity. In summary, throughout this thesis, several experimental paradigms have been designed to improve the understanding of how error-related potentials are generated during the interactive use of BMIs in user-oriented applications. Di↵erent methods have been proposed to shift from time-locked to asynchronous settings, both in terms of decoding and perception of the erroneous events; and it has explored three applications related with the augmentation of motor capabilities, in which ErrPs can be used for control of devices, motor substitution and neurorehabilitation.<br /

CES-513 Stages for Developing Control Systems using EMG and EEG Signals: A survey

Bio-signals such as EMG (Electromyography), EEG (Electroencephalography), EOG (Electrooculogram), ECG (Electrocardiogram) have been deployed recently to develop control systems for improving the quality of life of disabled and elderly people. This technical report aims to review the current deployment of these state of the art control systems and explain some challenge issues. In particular, the stages for developing EMG and EEG based control systems are categorized, namely data acquisition, data segmentation, feature extraction, classification, and controller. Some related Bio-control applications are outlined. Finally a brief conclusion is summarized.

A Hybrid Brain-computer Interface for Intelligent Prosthetics

Over the past few decades, many researcher have shown that human can use brain signals to communicate with computers or machines by using brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). BCI systems can measure the brain activity and translate them into control signals to external devices. A hybrid BCI system is to integrate two or more different BCI systems. By combining two different BCIs, the disadvantages can be eliminated and the advantages can stay. One of the BCI developed in this thesis is electroencephalographic (EEG). EEG is one of imaging techniques for spontaneous recording of the electrical activity from the brain. The EEG has been widely used in research for cognitive and brain-state studies in psychology, neuroprosthetics, transportation safety and clinical diagnosis . In this thesis a commercial EEG product, NeuroSky MindWave, is used to measure the EEG signal from forehead. From the acquired EEG signal, humans attention and meditation level can be obtain. A EEG control algorithm is developed in LabVIEW based on the attention level, meditation level and eye blinks to control an intelligent prosthetic. The other BCI used is eye-gaze tracking technology. Eye-gaze tracking technology is used to obtain the human's gaze direction. A eye-gaze tracking system is developed in this research. The system consists of a wearable self-build eye-gaze tracker with a scene camera, and the eye-gaze tracking algorithm developed in LabVIEW which can locate the eye pupil center and estimate the gaze direction. Combing two BCIs above, a hybrid BCI system is complete. Suppose a person want to use a prosthetic arm to grab one specific item, the eye-gaze tracker provides the information of which item is the person want exactly, and EEG BCI controls the prosthetic arm to grasp the item. The hybrid BCI system is robust enough and have a reliable accuracy from the experimental result

Development of a new robust hybrid automata algorithm based on surface electromyography (SEMG) signal for instrumented wheelchair control

Instrumented wheelchair operates based on surface electromyography (sEMG) is one of alternative to assist impairment person for mobility. SEMG is chosen due to good in accuracy and easier preparation to place the electrodes. Motor neuron transmit electrical potential to muscle fibre to perform isometric, concentric or eccentric contraction. These electrical changes that is called Motor Unit Action Potential (MUAP) can be acquired and amplified by electrodes located on targeted muscles changes can be recorded and analysed using sEMG devices. But, sEMG device cost up to USD 2,100 for a sEMG data acquisition device that available on market is one of the drawback to be used by impairment person that most of them has financial problem due to unable to work like before. In addition, it is a closed source system that cannot be modified to improve the accuracy and adding more features. Open source system such as Arduino has limitation of specifications that makes able to apply nonpattern recognition control methods which is simpler and easier compared to pattern recognition. However, classification accuracy is lower than pattern recognition and it cannot be applied to higher number participants from different background and gender. This research aims are to develop an open-source Arduino based sEMG data acquisition device by formulating hybrid automata algorithm to differentiate MUAP activity during wheelchair propulsion. Addition of hybrid automata algorithm to run pattern and non-pattern recognition based control methods is an advantage to increase accuracy in differentiating forward stroke or hand return activity. Electrodes are placed on Biceps (BIC), Triceps (TRI), Extensor (EXT), Flexor (FIX) and MUAP activity recorded for 30 healthy persons. Then, experiment result was validated with simulation result using OpenSim biomedical modelling software. Mean, standard deviation (SD), confidence interval (CI) and maximum point different (MPD) of MUAP were calculated and to be used as thresholds for non-pattern recognition control method in method selection experiment. Meanwhile, pattern recognition is using Probability Density Function (PDF) to determine MUAP according to type of activities. Total of ten control methods determined from population and individual data were tested against another 10 healthy persons to evaluate the algorithm performance. Assessment of each control method done by misclassification matrix looking at True Positive (TP) and False Negative (FN) of power assist system activation period. Developed sEMG data acquisition device that is operated by Arduino MEGA 2560 and Myoware muscle sensors with sampling rate of above 400Hz successfully recorded MUAP from four arm muscles. Furthermore, 2.5 ms of average data latency for device to record, analyse, validate and creating commands to activate the power assist system. Data obtained from the device shows that most active muscle during wheelchair propulsion is TRI, followed by BIC and matched to OpenSim simulation result. In method selection experiment, 96.28% of average accuracy was achieved and different control methods were selected by misclassification matrix for each of persons. This method would be a control method to activate power assist system and selected based on conditions set in the algorithm. These findings indicated that open source Arduino board is capable of running real time pattern, non-pattern recognition based control methods by producing classification accuracy up to 99.48% even though it is known as just a microcontroller that has limitation to run complex classifiers. At the same time, a device that cost less than USD200 has 400Hz of sampling rate is as good as closed source device that is come with expensive price tag to own it. Based on algorithm evaluation, it shows that one control method couldn’t fit to all persons as per proven in method selection experiment. Different person has different control method that suit them the most. Lastly, BIC and TRI can be reference muscles to activate assistive device in instrumented wheelchair that is using propulsion as indication