Are we predisposed to behave securely? Influence of risk disposition on individual security behaviors

Employees continue to be the weak link in organizational security management and efforts to improve the security of employee behaviors have not been as effective as hoped. Researchers contend that security-related decision making is primarily based on risk perception. There is also a belief that, if changed, this could improve security-related compliance. The extant research has primarily focused on applying theories that assume rational decision making e.g. protection motivation and deterrence theories. This work presumes we can influence employees towards compliance with information security policies and by means of fear appeals and threatened sanctions. However, it is now becoming clear that security-related decision making is complex and nuanced, not a simple carrot- and stick-related situation. Dispositional and situational factors interact and interplay to influence security decisions. In this paper, we present a model that positions psychological disposition of individuals in terms of risk tolerance vs. risk aversion and proposes research to explore how this factor influences security behaviors. We propose a model that acknowledges the impact of employees' individual dispositional risk propensity as well as their situational risk perceptions on security-related decisions. It is crucial to understand this decision-making phenomenon as a foundation for designing effective interventions to reduce such risk taking. We conclude by offering suggestions for further research.</p

Comparative analysis of spring flood risk reduction measures in Alaska, United States and the Sakha Republic, Russia

Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2017River ice thaw and breakup are an annual springtime phenomena in the North. Depending on regional weather patterns and river morphology, breakups can result in catastrophic floods in exposed and vulnerable communities. Breakup flood risk is especially high in rural and remote northern communities, where flood relief and recovery are complicated by unique geographical and climatological features, and limited physical and communication infrastructure. Proactive spring flood management would significantly minimize the adverse impacts of spring floods. Proactive flood management entails flood risk reduction through advances in ice jam and flood prevention, forecasting and mitigation, and community preparedness. With the goal to identify best practices in spring flood risk reduction, I conducted a comparative case study between two flood-prone communities, Galena in Alaska, United States and Edeytsy in the Sakha Republic, Russia. Within a week from each other, Galena and Edeytsy sustained major floods in May 2013. Methods included focus groups with the representatives from flood managing agencies, surveys of families impacted by the 2013 floods, observations on site, and archival review. Comparative parameters of the study included natural and human causes of spring floods, effectiveness of spring flood mitigation and preparedness strategies, and the role of interagency communication and cooperation in flood risk reduction. The analysis revealed that spring flood risk in Galena and Edeytsy results from complex interactions among a series of natural processes and human actions that generate conditions of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability. Therefore, flood risk in Galena and Edeytsy can be reduced by managing conditions of ice-jam floods, and decreasing exposure and vulnerability of the at-risk populations. Implementing the Pressure and Release model to analyze the vulnerability progression of Edeytsy and Galena points to common root causes at the two research sites, including colonial heritage, unequal distribution of resources and power, top-down governance, and limited inclusion of local communities in the decision-making process. To construct an appropriate flood risk reduction framework it is important to establish a dialogue among the diverse stakeholders on potential solutions, arriving at a range of top-down and bottom-up initiatives and in conjunction selecting the appropriate strategies. Both communities have progressed in terms of greater awareness of the hazard, reduction in vulnerabilities, and a shift to more reliance on shelter-in-place. However, in neither community have needed improvements in levee protection been completed. Dialogue between outside authorities and the community begins earlier and is more intensive for Edeytsy, perhaps accounting for Edeytsy's more favorable rating of risk management and response than Galena's

Implications for Risk Taking Behavior Leading to Crashes or Disasters-Effects of Perceived Risk on Risk Taking Decision

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the outcome in a risk averse sure option and the perceived risk of the worst outcome on risk taking behaviors and to get insights into prevention of disasters or crashes caused by risk taking. Because of cognitive biases to optimistically underestimate a risk, it is generally difficult to recognize rationally a risk and its consequence leading to a disaster or crash. Therefore, the recognition of the gap between the perceive risk and the real risk is a very important issue, because such a gap might cause risk taking behaviors or decisions, leading to a disaster or crash. Using three decision-making situations with different scenarios, we measured the perceived risk at which the decision changed from a risk averse alternative to a risk taking one as a function of the outcome in a sure risk averse alternative and the frame (positive or negative frame in a scenario of decision making). The perceived risk at which the decision shifted from a risk averse alternative to a risk taking one decreased with the increase of the outcome in a risk averse alternative. The perceived risk was lower when the decision-making scenario was positively framed. Irrespective of the difference of decision-making scenarios, there existed a self-reported risk (probability) that changed a decision from a risk averse alternative to a risk taking one. Applying the framework of decision making of this study to a few cases of crashes or disasters, some implications for preventing disasters or crashes were given

Terror threat perception and its consequences in contemporary Britain

The terrorist attacks of 9/11, and subsequent terrorist acts around the world, have alerted social psychologists to the need to examine the antecedents and consequences of terrorist threat perception. In these two studies we examined the predictive power of demographic factors (age, sex, location), individual values and normative influences on threat perception and the consequences of this perception for behavioural change and close relationships. In study 1 (N = 100) gender, benevolence values and normative influences were all correlates of threat perception, whilst sense of personal threat was correlated with increased contact with friends and family. In study 2 (N = 240) age, sex, location, and the values of Openness to Change and Hedonism, all predicted threat perception, which in turn predicted behavioural change and relationship contact. Such findings point to the important role social psychologists should play in understanding responses to these new terrorist threats

Growing pains: how risk perception and risk communication research can help to manage the challenges of global population growth

In 2011 the global human population reached seven billion and medium variant projections indicate that it will exceed nine billion before 2045. Theoretical and empirical perspectives suggest that this growth could lead to an increase in the likelihood of adverse events (e.g., food shortages, climate change, etc.) and/or the severity of adverse events (e.g., famines, natural disasters, etc.). Several scholars have posited that the size to which the global population grows and the extent to which this growth increases the likelihood of adverse outcomes will largely be shaped by individuals� decisions (in households, organizations, Governments, etc.). In light of the strong relationship between perceived risk and decision behaviors, it is surprising that there remains a dearth of empirical research that specifically examines the perceived risks of population growth and how these perceptions might influence related decisions. In an attempt to motivate this important strand of research, this paper examines the major risks that may be exacerbated by global population growth and draws upon empirical work concerning the perception and communication of risk to identify potential directions for future research. The paper also considers how individuals might perceive both the risks and benefits of population growth and be helped to better understand and address the related issues. The answers to these questions could help humanity better manage the emerging consequences of its continuing success in increasing infant survival and adult longevit

Protection motivation theory: a proposed theoretical extension and moving beyond rationality-the case of flooding

Despite the significant financial and non-financial costs of household flooding, and the availability of products that can reduce the risk or impact of flooding, relatively few consumers choose to adopt these products. To help explain this, we combine the existing theoretical literature with evidence from 20 one-to-one discussions and three workshops with key stakeholders, as well as five round tables, to draw practical evidence of actual responses to flood risk. This analysis leads us to propose an extension to Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), which more accurately captures the decision-making process of consumers by highlighting the role of 'ownership appraisal'. We then assess the extent to which behavioral biases impact on this revised framework. By highlighting the interaction with an augmented model of PMT and behavioral biases, the paper sheds light on potential reasons behind the fact that consumers are unlikely to adopt property-level flood resilience measures and identifies strategies to increase flood protection. The Augmented PMT suggests that policymakers might focus on increasing the Ownership Appraisal element, both directly and by targeting the creation of more supportive social norms. The work presented here opens up a wide range of areas for future research in the field

Optimistic bias in relation to hurricane risk

Department Head: Greg Luft.2010 Summer.Includes bibliographical references (pages 97-101).Public officials in the natural disaster field benefit from knowing whether individuals tend to underestimate or overestimate the dangers they could face from future hurricanes. Correcting hurricane risk misperceptions can encourage individuals living in coastal regions to take action and prepare themselves for the next hurricane season. One of the first steps in this process is to understand social perceptions of risk. In order to so, this quantitative study explored optimistic bias in relation to hurricane risk. Optimistic bias is defined as the tendency of people to be unrealistically optimistic about life events (Weinstein, 1980). Weinstein explains this belief through the idea that individuals expect others to suffer hardship, but not themselves. After conducting a secondary analysis on 824 surveys collected from Gulf Coast residents, results show implications on the effects that dispositional optimism, age and tenure have on optimistic bias pertaining to hurricane risk. This data provides important information for future research and has implications for hurricane risk education

Exploring the Information-Seeking Behaviors and Decision-Making Processes of Couples in Response to Unfamiliar Tornado Threats

The unique disaster, tornado, causes significant damage and casualties in the US every year, and tornado warnings are crucial to helping people take protective action and reduce the negative impact, especially in an unfamiliar situation. It is important for authorities to better understand how households in low-risk areas rely on information, perceive risk, and make protective action decisions because tornadoes can occur in many geographic locations and might cause significant damage. However, tornado information search behavior and the dynamic decision-making process are not well understood in the existing literature. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effect of the interaction between couples on their information search behaviors and protective action decisions. To better understand this issue, 68 couples who were living in the Seattle (WA) metropolitan area, known for being at low risk of experiencing tornadoes, were recruited to respond to an escalating tornado scenario (Alerts 1 to 5). An experiment, using the DynaSearch computer program, was conducted to get insight into couples’ decision-making processes in terms of individual and joint decision-making. DynaSearch, using internet web browsers, was set up to display the severe weather scenario (5-stage alerts) on Information Screens and ask questions on Questionnaire Screens. To investigate couples’ information preferences, DynaSearch displayed four types of graphic information and eight kinds of textual information for each alert. DynaSearch also recorded the mouse click counts and click duration when participants searched for information. Additionally, to examine their responses when faced with the threat, participants reported the likelihood of taking eight types of actions after each alert. The results showed that the differences in risk perception between couples and individuals were not significant in an unfamiliar event. Yet, the interaction between couples has an impact on their responses to the threat. Couples and male individuals were less likely to leave home or seek a public shelter under a tornado warning compared to female individuals. Additionally, risk information comprehension and tornado knowledge were positively correlated with staying at home and not evacuating (i.e., perceiving the need for immediate protective action rather than potentially putting oneself in harm’s way) while under a tornado warning. Moreover, compared to tornado risk maps, people preferred textual information (e.g., protective action recommendations, potential impact, hazards, storm location) when faced with an unfamiliar situation. Overall, these findings can inform authorities and meteorologists in understanding how households in low-risk areas search for tornado information, their preferences, and the different responses based on decision-making conditions

Framing descriptive norms as self-benefit versus environmental benefit : self-construal’s moderating impact in promoting smart energy devices

Recently, awareness has been raised concerning the importance of sustainable energy use. Nevertheless, many obstacles must be overcome to change individuals’ energy consumption habits. This study examines how a message should be framed to convince individuals to purchase a smart energy device that provides feedback on household energy use. As such, this device can assist households in adjusting their energy-wasting habits. Through two experimental studies, this paper examines how a descriptive normative message, indicating that the majority of US households have already purchased a smart energy device, can increase individuals’ intention to purchase the device. Both studies consider the moderating influence of the self-construal, which refers to individuals’ consideration of themselves as either part of a group (interdependent self-construal) or independent from others (independent self-construal). The first study (n = 231) reveals that a descriptive norm (versus no norm) leads to a higher purchase intention through an enhanced normative influence regardless of participants’ self-construal. The second study (n = 128) adds to the finding that combining a descriptive norm with a self-benefit (versus environmental) frame more strongly impacts the purchase intent of individuals with a dominant independence. No significant differences are identified between the two benefit frames’ effectiveness among individuals with a dominant interdependence