Capturing design process information and rationale to support knowledge-based design and analysis integration

Issued as final reportUnited States. Dept. of Commerc

Long term capacity planning with products' renewal

Long Term Capacity Planning (LTCP) consists of deciding the type and amount of capacity of production systems for multiple periods in a long term planning horizon. It involves decisions related to strategic planning, such as buying or selling of production technology, outsourcing, and making tactical decisions regarding capacity level and configuration. Making these kinds of decisions correctly is highly important for three reasons. Firstly, they usually involve a high investment; secondly, once a decision like this is taken, it cannot be changed easily (i.e. they are highly irreversible); thirdly, they affect the performance of the entire system and the decisions that will be possible at a tactical level. If capacity is suboptimal, there will be lost demand (in the present and possibly in the future); if the system is oversized, there will be unused resources, which may represent an economical loss. Long term decisions are typically solved with non-formalized procedures, such as generating and comparing solutions, which do not guarantee an optimal solution. In addition, the characteristics of the long term capacity planning problem make the problem very difficult to solve, especially in cases in which products have a short life cycle. One of the most relevant characteristics is the uncertainty inherent to strategic problems. In this case, uncertainty affects parameters such as demand, product life cycle, available production technology and the economic parameters involved (e.g. prices, costs, bank interests, etc.). Selection of production technology depends on the products being offered by the company, along with factors such as costs and productivity. When a product is renewed, the production technology may not be capable of producing it; or, if it can, the productivity and/or the quality may be poor. Furthermore, renewing a product will affect its demand (cannibalization), as well as the demand and value of the old products. Hence, it is very important to accurately decide the correct time for product renewal. This thesis aims to design a model for solving a long term capacity planning problem with the following main characteristics: (1) short-life cycle products and their renewal, with demand interactions (complementary and competitive products) considered; (2) different capacity options (such as acquisition, renewal, updating, outsourcing and reducing); and (3) tactical decisions (including integration strategic and tactical decisions)

The impact of printed electronics on product design

Printed electronics (PE) is a disruptive but growing technology that is beginning to integrate its way into viable applications for product design. However, the potential for future impact of the technology on product design and the designer s role and contribution to this has yet to be established. Interest is increasing in the potential for product designers to explore and exploit this technology. Technologies can be seen as being disruptive from both a business, and an adoption point of view. For a business, changing from one technology to another or incorporating a new technology and its production processes can be difficult if they already have their suppliers established and existing relationships in place. Understanding and adopting a new technology can be challenging for a business and individuals working within an established industry as it can cause many questions to be raised around its performance, and direct comparison with the technology they already have in place. However, there have been many technologies that could be seen as disruptive in the past, as they offered an alternative way of working or method of manufacture, such as Bluetooth, 3D printing, and automation (manufacturing/assembly/finishing), etc., and their success has been dictated by individual s perception and adoption of the technology, with their ability to see the worth and potential in the technology. Cost comparison is also an important aspect for a business to consider when choosing whether to change to a new technology or to remain with their existing technology, as changing can disrupt the manufacturing line assembly of a product, and direct cost comparisons of components themselves, such as the cost of buying silicon components in bulk verses printing the components. The new technology needs to offer something different to a product to be worth implementing it in a product, such as its flexible form or lightweight properties of printed electronics being of benefit to the product over what a silicon electronic component/circuit could offer (restricted to rigid circuit boards), the functionality/performance of the components themselves also need to be considered. Performance, availability and maturity of the technology are some of the essential aspects to consider when incorporating a new technology into a product and these can be evaluated using a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale. Interest in the stage of development for a technology lies not only with designers; industry and academia also contribute to knowledge by playing a central role in the process of determining a TRL scale that is universally recognised. However, a TRL separation issue occurs between academia (often the technology only reaching an experimental proof of concept stage, a lower number on the TRL scale indicating that the technology is at an early stage of development) and industry (not considering technology for commercialisation until it reaches a stage where there is a demonstration of pre-production capability validated on economic runs, a much higher number on the TRL scale - indicating that the technology is at a much more advanced stage of development). The aim of this doctoral research was to explore the contribution of PE to product design. The researcher experienced the scientific development of the technology first-hand, and undertook a literature review that covered three main topics: 1) printed electronics (the technology itself), 2) impact (approaches to assessing impact and methods of judging new technology) because together they will identify the state of the art of printed electronics technology, and 3) education - educational theories/methods for designers - studying how designers learn, explore different methods in educating them about new technologies, and start to find appropriate methods for educating them about printed electronics technology. A knowledge framework for PE technology was generated and utilised to produce a taxonomy and TRL scale for PE and confirmed by PE expert interview. Existing case studies in which PE technology had been presented to student designers were investigated through interviews with participants from academia and industry to solicit perception and opinions on approaches for the effective communication of PE knowledge to student designers within an educational environment. The findings were interpreted using thematic analysis and, after comparing the data, three main themes identified: technical constraints, designer s perspective, and what a designer is required to do. The findings from the research were combined to create an educational approach for knowledge transfer aimed specifically at meeting the needs of product designers. This resulted in the need for PE technology to be translated into both a visual and written format to create structure and direct links between the technological elements and their form and function in order to facilitate understanding by designers. Conclusions from the research indicate that the translation of this technology into an appropriate design language will equip designers with accessible fundamental knowledge on PE technology (i.e. electrical components: form, function, and area of the technology), which will allow informed decisions to be made about how PE can be used and to utilise its benefits in the design of products. The capabilities and properties of this technology, when paired with product design practice, has the capacity to transform the designs of future products in terms of form/functionality and prevailing/views towards design approaches with electronics. If exposed to a variety of PE elements ranging across different TRLs, designers have the capacity to bridge the TRL separation issue (the gap between academia and industry) through their ability to create design solutions for an end user and provide a commercial application for the technology

Technology for large space systems: A bibliography with indexes (supplement 16)

This bibliography lists 673 reports, articles and other documents introduced into the NASA scientific and technical information system between July 1, 1986 and December 31, 1986. Its purpose is to provide helpful information to the researcher, manager, and designer in technology development and mission design according to system interactive analysis and design, structural and thermal analysis and design, structural concepts and control systems, electronics, advanced materials, assembly concepts, propulsion, and solar power satellite systems

The technical efficiency of SACU Ports: a data envelopment analysis approach

There ever growing international trade and increasing congestion of ports led to an increased focus attention on technical efficiency. Seaports are a central and necessary component in facilitating international trade. Yet, there is only limited comprehensive information available on the technical efficiency of African ports. The study investigated the technical efficiency of the SACU ports during the period 2014-2019 using DEA model. The DEA model is effective in resolving the measurement of port efficiency since the calculations are nonparametric and do not need definition or knowledge of a priori weights for the inputs or outputs, as is necessary for estimate of efficiency using production functions. To identify the roots of the technical inefficiency of the SACU ports, the study subdivided technical efficiency into pure technical and scale efficiency. The model used cargo handled, container throughput, ship calls as output variables. Whilst, quay cranes, number of tugboats, draft, quay length and number of quays were used as input variables. The study used the scores of DEA-BCC model as explanatory variables in Tobit model. The results showed that quay cranes and quay length are the cause of technical inefficiencies in the ports.Thesis (MCom (Economics)) -- Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences, 202

The technical efficiency of SACU Ports: a data envelopment analysis approach

There ever growing international trade and increasing congestion of ports led to an increased focus attention on technical efficiency. Seaports are a central and necessary component in facilitating international trade. Yet, there is only limited comprehensive information available on the technical efficiency of African ports. The study investigated the technical efficiency of the SACU ports during the period 2014-2019 using DEA model. The DEA model is effective in resolving the measurement of port efficiency since the calculations are nonparametric and do not need definition or knowledge of a priori weights for the inputs or outputs, as is necessary for estimate of efficiency using production functions. To identify the roots of the technical inefficiency of the SACU ports, the study subdivided technical efficiency into pure technical and scale efficiency. The model used cargo handled, container throughput, ship calls as output variables. Whilst, quay cranes, number of tugboats, draft, quay length and number of quays were used as input variables. The study used the scores of DEA-BCC model as explanatory variables in Tobit model. The results showed that quay cranes and quay length are the cause of technical inefficiencies in the ports.Thesis (MCom (Economics)) -- Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences, 202

Management: A continuing literature survey with indexes

This bibliography lists 782 reports, articles, and other documents introduced into the NASA scientific and technical information system in 1977. The citations, and abstracts when available, are reproduced exactly as they appeared originally in IAA and STAR, including the original accession numbers from the respective announcement journals. Topics cover the management of research and development contracts, production, logistics, personnel, safety, reliability and quality control citations. Includes references on: program, project and systems management; management policy, philosophy, tools, and techniques; decisionmaking processes for managers; technology assessment; management of urban problems; and information for managers on Federal resources, expenditures, financing, and budgeting

Automated Purchase Order - Experiments and Expectations in Mid-sized Manufacturing Companies

Operational processes were originally designed before of large-scale information technology revolution in industries. Based on this fact, it has been argued that by redesigning business processes with help of information technology, efficiencies in operational processes may be achieved. Process integration and automation should save valuable time and resources at the same time. However, in small and medium sized businesses limited resources reduce possibilities to implement both information technology and changes in business processes. The research in this area concentrates whether on large corporations (in depth or on large samples) or on small and medium sized companies based on statistical information. Longitudinal and deep analysis on business process change in small and medium sized companies is scarce. In depth analysis on small and medium sized companies in the area is scarce. This research investigates the savings in labour and capital that are achievable through automating and integrating routine purchase process within a supply chain. This study investigated the area of purchasing and especially routine purchasing of direct production materials. Through the use of action research, quantitative and qualitative analysis, a variety of methods are used in order to give a broader view to the data and results. From the practical point of view, the purchase process of production materials is often repetitive work based on information from diverse information systems and sources. This study investigated the possibility of increasing efficiency through automated routine processes. As an indicator of increased efficiency, change in inventory turns was chosen. Three research questions were set: will purchase order automation have an effect on inventory turns, what are the main contributors to any observed changes in inventory turns and are the observed changes relevant in a larger context of small and medium sized companies? For the two first questions action research methodology was used with participant observation. Two projects of purchase order automation were conducted and effects on inventory turns were measured. The automation projects were conducted in a medium sized electronics manufacturing company and with two of its suppliers. A controlling sample was collected from the company item transaction database. These results were analysed with quantitative analysis methods. Thedata includes three samples of data between years 2000 and 2004. Results showed that automation does not clearly improve inventory turns but the results are mixed. Observed changes result from improved parameter setting and change in business conditions. The third question was treated separately through semi-structured interviews within purchase professionals in medium sized manufacturing companies. Four interviews were conducted in 2014-2015 to verify results from purchase automation projects. The answers were analysed with qualitative methods. It was found that the process of automation and its results are relevant to medium sized manufacturing companies. Special care, however, should be taken while implementing the system and setting its basic parameters. From the theoretical perspective, the research emphasizes the assumption that the benefits of business process changes are not always clearly visible but some positive results may be achieved. In regard of human decision-making biases it is clear that they exist and the effects of these biases may be reduced through process automation. The use of several different methods in data collection and analysis opens a larger picture for a deep analysis of the processes and their results. Through action research insights to the actual phenomenon are gained and a longitudinal analysis gives more than a snapshot to it. From the managerial perspective, process automation is an option to consider but at the same time it should be part of a larger process change initiative to see that it does not result into sub optimisation of processes at the expense of general process optimisation of a company. It is crucial to understand the biases made by individual decision makers in business processes and see, how the negative effects of these biases may be avoided through careful consideration of process automation.Automatisoitu ostotilaus – kokeiluja ja odotuksia keskisuurissa valmistavissa yrityksissä Operatiiviset toimintatavat suunniteltiin ennen suurimittaista tietotekniikan vallankumousta eri teollisuuden aloilla. Onkin esitetty, että operatiivisten prosessien tehokkuutta voidaan kasvattaa uudistamalla liiketoimintaprosesseja ja käyttämällä niissä tietoteknisiä sovelluksia. Prosessien integroinnilla ja automatisoinnilla voidaan säästää arvokasta aikaa ja resursseja samanaikaisesti. Pienten ja keskisuurten yritysten kohdalla ongelmana ovat resurssien rajallisuus, mikä vaikeuttaa prosessien uudistamista ja tarvittavien tietoteknisten sovellusten käyttöönottoa. Tutkimus aiheesta rajoittuu joko suuryrityksiin (perusteellinen analyysi tai laajempaan otokseen perustuen) tai pieniin ja keskisuuriin yrityksiin tilastolliseen tietoon perustuen. Perusteellinen analyysi pienissä ja keskisuurissa yrityksissä on tällä alueella harvinaista. Tällä tutkimuksella selvitettiin, voidaanko rutiininomaisen ostotyön prosessin automatisoinnilla ja integroinnilla toimittajien kanssa saavuttaa säästöjä toimitusketjun työ- ja pääomakustannuksissa. Tutkimus tehtiin siis ostotyön ja erityisesti suorien tuotannollisten materiaaliostojen alueella. Käyttämällä toimintatutkimusmenetelmää, sekä kvantitatiivisia että laadullisia analyysitapoja, saadaan laajempi näkökulma käsiteltyyn tietoon ja tuloksiin. Käytännöllisestä lähtökohdasta katsoen on tuotannollisten materiaalien ostotoiminta usein toistuvaa, rutiininomaista työtä, joka perustuu tietoon eri järjestelmistä ja lähteistä. Tuottavuuden nostamiseksi oli kiinnostava tutkia saadaanko rutiinityön automatisoinnilla tehostettua kyseistä prosessia. Varaston kierron muutos valittiin tehokkuuden nousun mittariksi. Tutkimuksessa haettiin vastausta kolmeen kysymykseen: onko ostotilauksen automatisoinnilla vaikutusta varaston kiertonopeuteen, mitkä tekijät vaikuttavat havaittuihin muutoksiin varaston kiertonopeudessa ja ovatko tässä tutkimuksessa saadut havainnot merkittäviä suuremmassa joukossa pieniä ja keskisuuria yrityksiä? Kahden ensimmäisen kysymyksen kohdalla käytettiin toimintatutkimusta ja tutkijan osallistumista toimintaan tutkittavassa kohteessa. Kaksi ostotilauksen automatisointiprojektia toteutettiin ja niiden yhteydessä mitattiin varaston kiertonopeuden muutoksia. Automatisointiprojektit toteutettiin keskisuuressa yrityksessä kahden yrityksen tavarantoimittajan kanssa. Vertaileva otos kerättiin yrityksen nimiketapahtumien tietokannasta. Nämä tulokset analysoitiin kvalitatiivisin menetelmin. Materiaali sisältää kolme otosta vuosien 2000 ja 2004 väliseltä ajalta. Tutkimuksessa todettiin, että automatisointi ei selkeästi parantanut varastojen kiertonopeutta vaan tulokset ovat ristiriitaisia. Havaitut muutokset johtuvat pääsääntöisesti parannetusta järjestelmän parametrien asetuksista sekä muista liiketoimintaympäristön muutoksista. Kolmas tutkimuskysymys käsiteltiin erikseen käyttäen puolistrukturoitua haastattelurunkoa, jonka avulla haastateltiin ostotoiminnan ammattilaisia keskisuurissa valmistavissa yrityksissä. Vuosina 2014-2015 toteutettiin neljä haastattelua, jotta voitaisiin tarkistaa automatisointiprojektien tuottamat tulokset. Haastattelujen vastaukset analysoitiin laadullisin menetelmin. Tuloksena havaittiin, että automatisointiprosessi ja sen tulokset ovat merkityksellisiä keskisuurissa valmistavissa yrityksissä. Erityinen huomio tulee kuitenkin kiinnittää käyttöönottoprojektiin ja järjestelmän perustietojen määritykseen. Teoreettisesta näkökulmasta tutkimus vahvistaa näkemystä siitä, että liiketoimintaprosessien muutoksella saadut hyödyt eivät ole aina selvästi näkyvissä, vaikka joitain positiivisia vaikutuksia voidaan havaita. Inhimillisten päätöksentekoprosessien alttius poikkeamille normaalista vaikuttaa myös ostoprosessiin, ja automatisoimalla ostoprosessia sen negatiivisia vaikutuksia varaston kiertonopeuteen voidaan vähentää. Eri menetelmien käyttö tiedon keräämisessä ja tiedon analysoinnissa antaa laajemman kuvan toimintatapoihin ja niiden tuloksiin. Toimintatutkimuksen avulla voidaan päästä lähemmäs asioiden todellisia syitä ja pitkällä tutkimusjänteellä saadaan enemmän kuin yksittäisiä kuvia tilanteesta. Yrityksen johdon näkökulmasta toimintaprosessien automatisointi on yksi mahdollisuus, mutta sen tulisi aina olla seurausta laajemmasta toiminnan arvioinnista jotta vältytään yksittäisten prosessien optimoinnilta koko yrityksen liiketoimintaprosessin optimoinnin kustannuksella. On myös erittäin tärkeää ymmärtää yksittäisen päätöksentekijän aiheuttamat poikkeamat prosessiin, ja se miten nämä poikkeamat voidaan välttää huolellisella valinnalla siitä, mitä prosesseja automatisoidaan.Siirretty Doriast