Energy-aware Dual-path Geographic Routing to Bypass Routing Holes in Wireless Sensor Networks

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from IEEE via the DOI in this record.Geographic routing has been considered as an attractive approach for resource-constrained wireless sensor networks (WSNs) since it exploits local location information instead of global topology information to route data. However, this routing approach often suffers from the routing hole (i.e., an area free of nodes in the direction closer to destination) in various environments such as buildings and obstacles during data delivery, resulting in route failure. Currently, existing geographic routing protocols tend to walk along only one side of the routing holes to recover the route, thus achieving suboptimal network performance such as longer delivery delay and lower delivery ratio. Furthermore, these protocols cannot guarantee that all packets are delivered in an energy-efficient manner once encountering routing holes. In this paper, we focus on addressing these issues and propose an energy-aware dual-path geographic routing (EDGR) protocol for better route recovery from routing holes. EDGR adaptively utilizes the location information, residual energy, and the characteristics of energy consumption to make routing decisions, and dynamically exploits two node-disjoint anchor lists, passing through two sides of the routing holes, to shift routing path for load balance. Moreover, we extend EDGR into three-dimensional (3D) sensor networks to provide energy-aware routing for routing hole detour. Simulation results demonstrate that EDGR exhibits higher energy efficiency, and has moderate performance improvements on network lifetime, packet delivery ratio, and delivery delay, compared to other geographic routing protocols in WSNs over a variety of communication scenarios passing through routing holes. The proposed EDGR is much applicable to resource-constrained WSNs with routing holes.This work has been partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61402343, No. 61672318, No. U1504614, No. 61631013, and No. 61303241), the National Key Research and Development Program (No. 2016YFB1000102), the Natural Science Foundation of Suzhou/Jiangsu Province (No. BK20160385), the EU FP7 QUICK Project (No. PIRSESGA- 2013-612652), and the projects of Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and Technology (TNList)

New techniques for geographic routing

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2006.Includes bibliographical references (p. 141-148).As wireless sensor networks continue to grow in size, we are faced with the prospect of emerging wireless networks with hundreds or thousands of nodes. Geographic routing algorithms are a promising alternative to tradition ad hoc routing algorithms in this new domain for point-to-point routing, but deployments of such algorithms are currently uncommon because of some practical difficulties. This dissertation explores techniques that address two major issues in the deployment of geographic routing algorithms: (i) the costs associated with distributed planarization and (ii) the unavailability of location information. We present and evaluate two new algorithms for geographic routing: Greedy Distributed Spanning Tree Routing (GDSTR) and Greedy Embedding Spring Coordinates (GSpring). Unlike previous geographic routing algorithms which require the planarization of the network connectivity graph, GDSTR switches to routing on a spanning tree instead of a planar graph when packets end up at dead ends during greedy forwarding. To choose a direction on the tree that is most likely to make progress towards the destination, each GDSTR node maintains a summary of the area covered by the subtree below each of its tree neighbors using convex hulls.(cont.) This distributed data structure is called a hull tree. GDSTR not only requires an order of magnitude less bandwidth to maintain these hull trees than CLDP, the only distributed planarization algorithm that is known to work with practical radio networks, it often achieves better routing performance than previous planarization-based geographic routing algorithms. GSpring is a new virtual coordinate assignment algorithm that derives good coordinates for geographic routing when location information is not available. Starting from a set of initial coordinates for a set of elected perimeter nodes, GSpring uses a modified spring relaxation algorithm to incrementally adjust virtual coordinates to increase the convexity of voids in the virtual routing topology. This reduces the probability that packets will end up in dead ends during greedy forwarding, and improves the routing performance of existing geographic routing algorithms. The coordinates derived by GSpring yield comparable routing performance to that for actual physical coordinates and significantly better performance than that for NoGeo, the best existing algorithm for deriving virtual coordinates for geographic routing. Furthermore, GSpring is the first known algorithm that is able to derive coordinates that achieve better geographic routing performance than actual physical coordinates for networks with obstacles.by Ben Wing Lup Leong.Ph.D

New Techniques for Geographic Routing

PhD thesisAs wireless sensor networks continue to grow in size, we are facedwith the prospect of emerging wireless networks with hundreds orthousands of nodes. Geographic routing algorithms are a promisingalternative to tradition ad hoc routing algorithms in this new domainfor point-to-point routing, but deployments of such algorithms arecurrently uncommon because of some practical difficulties.This dissertation explores techniques that address two major issues inthe deployment of geographic routing algorithms: (i) the costsassociated with distributed planarization and (ii) the unavailabilityof location information. We present and evaluate two new algorithmsfor geographic routing: Greedy Distributed Spanning Tree Routing(GDSTR) and Greedy Embedding Spring Coordinates (GSpring).Unlike previous geographic routing algorithms which require theplanarization of the network connectivity graph, GDSTR switches torouting on a spanning tree instead of a planar graph when packets endup at dead ends during greedy forwarding. To choose a direction on thetree that is most likely to make progress towards the destination,each GDSTR node maintains a summary of the area covered by the subtreebelow each of its tree neighbors using convex hulls. This distributeddata structure is called a hull tree. GDSTR not only requires an orderof magnitude less bandwidth to maintain these hull trees than CLDP,the only distributed planarization algorithm that is known to workwith practical radio networks, it often achieves better routingperformance than previous planarization-based geographic routingalgorithms.GSpring is a new virtual coordinate assignment algorithm that derivesgood coordinates for geographic routing when location information isnot available. Starting from a set of initial coordinates for a set ofelected perimeter nodes, GSpring uses a modified spring relaxationalgorithm to incrementally adjust virtual coordinates to increase theconvexity of voids in the virtual routing topology. This reduces theprobability that packets will end up in dead ends during greedyforwarding, and improves the routing performance of existinggeographic routing algorithms.The coordinates derived by GSpring yield comparable routingperformance to that for actual physical coordinates and significantlybetter performance than that for NoGeo, the best existing algorithmfor deriving virtual coordinates for geographic routing. Furthermore,GSpring is the first known algorithm that is able to derivecoordinates that achieve better geographic routing performance thanactual physical coordinates for networks with obstacles

Position-based routing and MAC protocols for wireless ad-hoc networks

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.This thesis presents the Forecasting Routing Technique (FORTEL), a routing protocol for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) based on the nodes’ Location Information. FORTEL stores the nodes’ location information in the Location Table (LT) in order to construct routes between the source and the destination nodes. FORTEL follows the source routing strategy, which has rarely been applied in position-based routing. According to the source routing strategy, the end-to-end route is attached to the packet, therefore, the processing cost, in regards to the intermediate nodes that simply relay the packet according to route, is minimized. FORTEL’s key mechanisms include: first, the location update scheme, employed to keep the LT entries up-to-date with the network topology. Besides the mobility variation and the constant rate location update schemes applied, a window location update scheme is presented to increase the LT’s information accuracy. Second, the switching mechanism, between “Hello” message and location update employed, to reduce the protocol’s routing overhead. Third and most important is the route computation mechanism, which is integrated with a topology forecasting technique to construct up-to-date routes between the communication peers, aiming to achieve high delivery rate and increase the protocol robustness against the nodes’ movement. FORTEL demonstrates higher performance as compared to other MANET’s routing protocols, and it delivers up to 20% more packets than AODV and up to 60 % more than DSR and OLSR, while maintaining low levels of routing overhead and network delay at the same time. The effectiveness of the window update scheme is also discussed, and it proves to increase FORTEL’s delivery rate by up to 30% as compared to the other update schemes. A common and frequently occurring phenomenon, in wireless networks, is the Hidden Terminal problem that significantly impacts the communication performance and the efficiency of the routing and MAC protocols. Beaconless routing approach in MANETs, which delivers data packets without prior knowledge of any sort `of information, suffers from packet duplication caused by the hidden nodes during the contention process. Moreover, the throughput of the IEEE MAC protocol decreases dramatically when the hidden terminal problem occurs. RTS/CTS mechanism fails to eliminate the problem and can further degrade the network’s performance by introducing additional overhead. To tackle these challenges, this thesis presents two techniques, the Sender Suppression Algorithm and the Location-Aided MAC, where both rely on the nodes’ position to eliminate packet duplication in the beaconless routing and improve the performance of the 802.11 MAC respectively. Both schemes are based on the concept of grouping the nodes into zones and assign different time delay to each one. According to the Sender Suppression Algorithm, the sender’s forwarding area is divided into three zones, therefore, the local timer, set to define the time that the receiver has to wait before responding to the sender’s transmission, is added to the assigned zone delay. Following the first response, the sender interferes and suppresses the receivers with active timer of. On the other hand, the Location-Aided MAC, essentially a hybrid MAC, combines the concepts of time division and carrier sensing. The radio range of the wireless receiver is partitioned into four zones with different zone delays assigned to each zone. Channel access within the zone is purely controlled by CSMA/CA protocol, while it is time-based amongst zones. The effectiveness of the proposed techniques is demonstrated through simulation tests. Location-Aided MAC considerably improves the network’s throughput compared to CSMA/CA and RTS/CTS. However, remarkable results come when the proposed technique and the RTS/CTS are combined, which achieves up to 20% more throughput as compared to the standalone RTS/CTS. Finally, the thesis presents a novel link lifetime estimation method for greedy forwarding to compute the link duration between two nodes. Based on a newly introduced Stability-Aware Greedy (SAG) scheme, the proposed method incorporates the destination node in the computation process and thus has a significant advantage over the conventional method, which only considers the information of the nodes composing the link

Geographic Routing for Point to Point Data Delivery in Wireless Sensor Network

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

Efficient route discovery for reactive routing

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.Information on the location of mobile nodes in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) has the potential to significantly improve network performance. This thesis uses node location information to develop new techniques for route discovery in on-demand routing protocols such as the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), thus making an important contribution to enhancing the experience of using mobile networks. A Candidate Neighbours to Rebroadcast the Route Request (CNRR) approach has been proposed to reduce the deleterious impact, known as the broadcast storm, of RREQ packets flooding in traditional on-demand routing protocols. The main concept behind CNRR is specifying a set of neighbours which will rebroadcast the received RREQ. This is a departure from the traditional approach of all receiving nodes rebroadcasting RREQs and has the effect of reducing the problem of redundancy from which mobile networks suffer. The proposed protocol has been developed in two phases: Closest-CNRR and Furthest-CNRR. The simulation results show that the proposed algorithms have a significant effect as they reduce the routing overhead of the AODV protocol by up to 28% compared to the C-CNRR, and by up to 17.5% compared to the F-CNRR. Notably, the proposed algorithms simultaneously achieve better throughput and less data dropping. The Link Stability and Energy Aware protocol (LSEA) has been developed to reduce the overhead while increasing network lifetimes. The LSEA helps to control the global dissemination of RREQs in the network by eliminating those nodes that have a residual energy level below a specific threshold value from participation in end-to-end routes. The proposed LSEA protocol significantly increases network lifetimes by up to 19% compared with other on-demand routing protocols while still managing to obtain the same packet delivery ratio and network throughput levels. Furthermore, merging the LSEA and CNRR concepts has the great advantage of reducing the dissemination of RREQs in the network without loss of reachability among the nodes. This increases network lifetimes, reduces the overhead and increases the amount of data sent and received. Accordingly, a Position-based Selective Neighbour (PSN) approach has been proposed which combines the advantages of zoning and link stability. The results show that the proposed technique has notable advantages over both the AODV and MAAODV as it improves delivery ratios by 24.6% and 18.8%, respectively.Funded by National Council for Training - Sudan and the Sudan Academy of Science

Position-based routing and MAC protocols for wireless ad-hoc networks

This thesis presents the Forecasting Routing Technique (FORTEL), a routing protocol for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) based on the nodes' Location Information. FORTEL stores the nodes' location information in the Location Table (LT) in order to construct routes between the source and the destination nodes. FORTEL follows the source routing strategy, which has rarely been applied in position-based routing. According to the source routing strategy, the end-to-end route is attached to the packet, therefore, the processing cost, in regards to the intermediate nodes that simply relay the packet according to route, is minimized. FORTEL's key mechanisms include: first, the location update scheme, employed to keep the LT entries up-to-date with the network topology. Besides the mobility variation and the constant rate location update schemes applied, a window location update scheme is presented to increase the LT's information accuracy. Second, the switching mechanism, between "Hello" message and location update employed, to reduce the protocol's routing overhead. Third and most important is the route computation mechanism, which is integrated with a topology forecasting technique to construct up-to-date routes between the communication peers, aiming to achieve high delivery rate and increase the protocol robustness against the nodes' movement. FORTEL demonstrates higher performance as compared to other MANET's routing protocols, and it delivers up to 20% more packets than AODV and up to 60 % more than DSR and OLSR, while maintaining low levels of routing overhead and network delay at the same time. The effectiveness of the window update scheme is also discussed, and it proves to increase FORTEL's delivery rate by up to 30% as compared to the other update schemes. A common and frequently occurring phenomenon, in wireless networks, is the Hidden Terminal problem that significantly impacts the communication performance and the efficiency of the routing and MAC protocols. Beaconless routing approach in MANETs, which delivers data packets without prior knowledge of any sort `of information, suffers from packet duplication caused by the hidden nodes during the contention process. Moreover, the throughput of the IEEE MAC protocol decreases dramatically when the hidden terminal problem occurs. RTS/CTS mechanism fails to eliminate the problem and can further degrade the network's performance by introducing additional overhead. To tackle these challenges, this thesis presents two techniques, the Sender Suppression Algorithm and the Location-Aided MAC, where both rely on the nodes' position to eliminate packet duplication in the beaconless routing and improve the performance of the 802.11 MAC respectively. Both schemes are based on the concept of grouping the nodes into zones and assign different time delay to each one. According to the Sender Suppression Algorithm, the sender's forwarding area is divided into three zones, therefore, the local timer, set to define the time that the receiver has to wait before responding to the sender's transmission, is added to the assigned zone delay. Following the first response, the sender interferes and suppresses the receivers with active timer of. On the other hand, the Location-Aided MAC, essentially a hybrid MAC, combines the concepts of time division and carrier sensing. The radio range of the wireless receiver is partitioned into four zones with different zone delays assigned to each zone. Channel access within the zone is purely controlled by CSMA/CA protocol, while it is time-based amongst zones. The effectiveness of the proposed techniques is demonstrated through simulation tests. Location-Aided MAC considerably improves the network's throughput compared to CSMA/CA and RTS/CTS. However, remarkable results come when the proposed technique and the RTS/CTS are combined, which achieves up to 20% more throughput as compared to the standalone RTS/CTS. Finally, the thesis presents a novel link lifetime estimation method for greedy forwarding to compute the link duration between two nodes. Based on a newly introduced Stability-Aware Greedy (SAG) scheme, the proposed method incorporates the destination node in the computation process and thus has a significant advantage over the conventional method, which only considers the information of the nodes composing the link.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo

Position-based routing and MAC protocols for wireless ad-hoc networks

This thesis presents the Forecasting Routing Technique (FORTEL), a routing protocol for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) based on the nodes' Location Information. FORTEL stores the nodes' location information in the Location Table (LT) in order to construct routes between the source and the destination nodes. FORTEL follows the source routing strategy, which has rarely been applied in position-based routing. According to the source routing strategy, the end-to-end route is attached to the packet, therefore, the processing cost, in regards to the intermediate nodes that simply relay the packet according to route, is minimized. FORTEL's key mechanisms include: first, the location update scheme, employed to keep the LT entries up-to-date with the network topology. Besides the mobility variation and the constant rate location update schemes applied, a window location update scheme is presented to increase the LT's information accuracy. Second, the switching mechanism, between "Hello" message and location update employed, to reduce the protocol's routing overhead. Third and most important is the route computation mechanism, which is integrated with a topology forecasting technique to construct up-to-date routes between the communication peers, aiming to achieve high delivery rate and increase the protocol robustness against the nodes' movement. FORTEL demonstrates higher performance as compared to other MANET's routing protocols, and it delivers up to 20% more packets than AODV and up to 60 % more than DSR and OLSR, while maintaining low levels of routing overhead and network delay at the same time. The effectiveness of the window update scheme is also discussed, and it proves to increase FORTEL's delivery rate by up to 30% as compared to the other update schemes. A common and frequently occurring phenomenon, in wireless networks, is the Hidden Terminal problem that significantly impacts the communication performance and the efficiency of the routing and MAC protocols. Beaconless routing approach in MANETs, which delivers data packets without prior knowledge of any sort `of information, suffers from packet duplication caused by the hidden nodes during the contention process. Moreover, the throughput of the IEEE MAC protocol decreases dramatically when the hidden terminal problem occurs. RTS/CTS mechanism fails to eliminate the problem and can further degrade the network's performance by introducing additional overhead. To tackle these challenges, this thesis presents two techniques, the Sender Suppression Algorithm and the Location-Aided MAC, where both rely on the nodes' position to eliminate packet duplication in the beaconless routing and improve the performance of the 802.11 MAC respectively. Both schemes are based on the concept of grouping the nodes into zones and assign different time delay to each one. According to the Sender Suppression Algorithm, the sender's forwarding area is divided into three zones, therefore, the local timer, set to define the time that the receiver has to wait before responding to the sender's transmission, is added to the assigned zone delay. Following the first response, the sender interferes and suppresses the receivers with active timer of. On the other hand, the Location-Aided MAC, essentially a hybrid MAC, combines the concepts of time division and carrier sensing. The radio range of the wireless receiver is partitioned into four zones with different zone delays assigned to each zone. Channel access within the zone is purely controlled by CSMA/CA protocol, while it is time-based amongst zones. The effectiveness of the proposed techniques is demonstrated through simulation tests. Location-Aided MAC considerably improves the network's throughput compared to CSMA/CA and RTS/CTS. However, remarkable results come when the proposed technique and the RTS/CTS are combined, which achieves up to 20% more throughput as compared to the standalone RTS/CTS. Finally, the thesis presents a novel link lifetime estimation method for greedy forwarding to compute the link duration between two nodes. Based on a newly introduced Stability-Aware Greedy (SAG) scheme, the proposed method incorporates the destination node in the computation process and thus has a significant advantage over the conventional method, which only considers the information of the nodes composing the link.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo