New approaches to the emerging social neuroscience of human-robot interaction

Prehistoric art, like the Venus of Willendorf sculpture, shows that we have always looked for ways to distil fundamental human characteristics and capture them in physically embodied representations of the self. Recently, this undertaking has gained new momentum through the introduction of robots that resemble humans in their shape and their behaviour. These social robots are envisioned to take on important roles: alleviate loneliness, support vulnerable children and serve as helpful companions for the elderly. However, to date, few commercially available social robots are living up to these expectations. Given their importance for an ever older and more socially isolated society, rigorous research at the intersection of psychology, social neuroscience and human-robot interaction is needed to determine to which extent mechanisms active during human-human interaction can be co-opted when we encounter social robots. This thesis takes an anthropocentric approach to answering the question how socially motivated we are to interact with humanoid robots. Across three empirical and one theoretical chapter, I use self-report, behavioural and neural measures relevant to the study of interactions with robots to address this question. With the Social Motivation Theory of Autism as a point of departure, the first empirical chapter (Chapter 3) investigates the relevance of interpersonal synchrony for human-robot interaction. This chapter reports a null effect: participants did not find a robot that synchronised its movement with them on a drawing task more likeable, nor were they more motivated to ask it more questions in a semi-structured interaction scenario. As this chapter heavily relies on self-report as a main outcome measure, Chapter 4 addresses this limitation by adapting an established behavioural paradigm for the study of human-robot interaction. This chapter shows that a failure to conceptually extend an effect in the field of social attentional capture calls for a different approach when seeking to adapt paradigms for HRI. Chapter 5 serves as a moment of reflection on the current state-of-the-art research at the intersection of neuroscience and human-robot interaction. Here, I argue that the future of HRI research will rely on interaction studies with mobile brain imaging systems (like functional near-infrared spectroscopy) that allow data collection during embodied encounters with social robots. However, going forward, the field should slowly and carefully move outside of the lab and into real situations with robots. As the previous chapters have established, well-known effects have to be replicated before they are implemented for robots, and before they are taken out of the lab, into real life. The final empirical chapter (Chapter 6), takes the first step of this proposed slow approach: in addition to establishing the detection rate of a mobile fNIRS system in comparison to fMRI, this chapter contributes a novel way to digitising optode positions by means of photogrammetry. In the final chapter of this thesis, I highlight the main lessons learned conducting studies with social robots. I propose an updated roadmap which takes into account the problems raised in this thesis and emphasise the importance of incorporating more open science practices going forward. Various tools that emerged out of the open science movement will be invaluable for researchers working on this exciting, interdisciplinary endeavour

Interactive Application Controlled by Movement of Eyes

Import 03/11/2016Cílem této práce je vytvoření interaktivní aplikace s využitím očních pohybů pro její ovládání. Pro realizaci byla použita metoda elektrookulografie, která využívá elektrických potenciálů očí. Sestrojený elektrookulograf, jehož základním prvkem je přístrojový zesilovač, tvoří výchozí, hardwarovou část práce. Vlastní prací je pak algoritmus vytvořený v programovacím prostředí LabVIEW představující hru „SNAKE“s, jenž vyhodnocuje směry pohybu očí. Hra je prezentována grafickým uživatelským rozhraním, které obsahuje herní pole, indikátory pro určení směru pohybu hada a také grafy pro znázornění průběhu snímaného signálu. Propojením softwarové a hardwarové části, které je zajištěno pomocí zařízení NI ELVIS II, došlo k vytvoření funkční interaktivní aplikace s ovládáním prostřednictvím očních pohybů.This thesis objective was to create an interactive application controlled by the eye movement. The application was developed using the Electro-oculography method which is exploiting the electrical potentials of the eyes. The initial hardware part of the work is an assembled Electrooculograph with its main component being a device amplifier. The authentic work is an algorithm created in the LabVIEW programming environment designing a game called “SNAKE” which analyses the eye motion. The game is introduced in a graphic user interface which includes the game environment, movement indicators to determine the snake directions, and graphs to show the recorded signals. A functional interactive application controlled via the eye movement was created by combining the software and the hardware parts using the NI ELVIS II device.450 - Katedra kybernetiky a biomedicínského inženýrstvívýborn

Human—Robot companionship: A mixed-methods investigation

In recent years, the arts have brought robots to life in spectacular fashion. In popular fiction we have been presented with machines that can run, leap, fight, and (perhaps most impressively of all) robots which can ascend stairs with absolutely no trouble at all. Amidst these chaotic and often dystopian scenes, we are exposed to moments of humour and lightness – robots can be seen engaging in conversation, cracking jokes, and comforting someone in their time of need. In these relatively mundane moments (as we smile, laugh, and cry) the impression emerges that the robot is something special to the person depicted. Rather than simply being a household appliance, it appears to be something more: a sort of… friend. Returning from the pages and screens of fiction to the real world, we find human society ever more fractured, and the loneliness epidemic at large. Unsurprisingly, given the engaging depictions in popular fiction, the idea of robots for companionship and social support is gaining traction and garnering increasing research attention. In care homes, robot animals can be found cooing and purring in the laps of individuals with dementia, while in schools, friendly humanoid robots may be seen teaching social skills to children with additional needs. What remains unknown, though, is the extent to which people will grow fond of such ‘social robots’ over time, and if so, whether their relationships with these machines might ever resemble (or indeed, replace) those with other humans. Is a ‘robot friend’ the stuff of science-fiction, or could it someday soon become sciencereality? In this thesis, this question is explored from a range of perspectives using a variety of methods spanning lab-based experiments, online surveys, and focus groups. This thesis begins with an introduction to social robots, and an exploration of the background regarding the nature and importance of human social relationships. After introducing relevant theories, I highlight gaps in our understanding of human—robot companionship that I seek to explore through this thesis (Chapter 1). In the subsequent chapters, I present four empirical pieces of work, each offering a unique perspective on the subject. Specifically, in Chapter 2, I report results from a lab-based experiment in which a robot’s lights (located within its shoulders) were programmed to illuminate in a synchronous or asynchronous manner relative to a participant’s heart rate. I aimed to determine whether such a synchrony manipulation might increase prosocial behaviours and improve attitudes towards a social robot - based on prior work showing that experimentally-induced movement synchrony can improve rapport between people, and increase their liking of social robots (Hove & Risen, 2009; Lehmann et al., 2015, Mogan, Fischer & Bulbulia, 2017). Despite demonstrating no positive effect of the light manipulation, this study raises important questions regarding the complexities of defining and measuring attachment to a robot. In Chapter 3, I delve deeper into the qualitative data collected in Chapter 2 to build a more complete appreciation of the value of open questions – particularly in terms of method validation and understanding participants’ internal experiences. After this chapter, I shift perspective from a focus on humanoid robots (and manipulations based on human social behaviours), to human relationships with non-human companion animals. This shift was motivated by my desire to explore how non-human agents form deep and enduring social bonds with humans – as opposed to basing the thesis on human interpersonal relationships alone. Due to the success of dogs as companions, I conducted a study in which dog owners were asked to identify behaviours that they perceived as important to the bond with their dog (Chapter 4). Seven key themes emerged from this research, indicating the importance of attunement, communication, consistency and predictability, physical affection, positivity and enthusiasm, proximity, and shared activities. In the following chapter, I implement a selection of ‘desirable’ dog behaviours within an animal-inspired robot (Chapter 5). By showing the behaviours to members of the general public, and conducting focus groups, I gained deeper insights into the polarising nature of robot animals – not only in terms of how their behaviours are perceived, but also in terms of the roles people think robots should (and should not) hold. In addition to these themes, this final empirical chapter discusses insights regarding the high expectations people place upon robots, as well as public concerns around overdependence on robots, and privacy. By releasing these chapters to the HRI community (through publications or preprints) we sparked conversations within the HRI community – not only about the ethics of robot abuse studies, but also the potential value of qualitative approaches within the field. Our team was commended for publishing qualitative research, in a field heavily dominated by quantitative methods, and we have since been working to continue the conversations around the value of qualitative approaches. Specifically, we hosted the “Enriching HRI Research with Qualitative Methods” workshop at the International Journal on Social Robotics (2020) and launched a “Qualitative Research in HRI/HCI Discussion Group” online - allowing HRI researchers to discuss their work, and share relevant resources (e.g., events and publications). This thesis concludes by detailing work to be done moving forwards, to enhance our understanding of human—robot social relationships, and a broader discussion of our possible future with social robots (Chapter 6). Pulling from various disciplines (including psychology, cognitive science, human—robot interaction (HRI) Studies, robot ethics, and philosophy), this section concludes with consideration of potential consequences of companion technologies – not only for the individual, but perhaps for society as a whole, as we continue to grapple with questions concerning how much of science fiction we wish to welcome into our daily lives

Designing Sound for Social Robots: Advancing Professional Practice through Design Principles

Sound is one of the core modalities social robots can use to communicate with the humans around them in rich, engaging, and effective ways. While a robot's auditory communication happens predominantly through speech, a growing body of work demonstrates the various ways non-verbal robot sound can affect humans, and researchers have begun to formulate design recommendations that encourage using the medium to its full potential. However, formal strategies for successful robot sound design have so far not emerged, current frameworks and principles are largely untested and no effort has been made to survey creative robot sound design practice. In this dissertation, I combine creative practice, expert interviews, and human-robot interaction studies to advance our understanding of how designers can best ideate, create, and implement robot sound. In a first step, I map out a design space that combines established sound design frameworks with insights from interviews with robot sound design experts. I then systematically traverse this space across three robot sound design explorations, investigating (i) the effect of artificial movement sound on how robots are perceived, (ii) the benefits of applying compositional theory to robot sound design, and (iii) the role and potential of spatially distributed robot sound. Finally, I implement the designs from prior chapters into humanoid robot Diamandini, and deploy it as a case study. Based on a synthesis of the data collection and design practice conducted across the thesis, I argue that the creation of robot sound is best guided by four design perspectives: fiction (sound as a means to convey a narrative), composition (sound as its own separate listening experience), plasticity (sound as something that can vary and adapt over time), and space (spatial distribution of sound as a separate communication channel). The conclusion of the thesis presents these four perspectives and proposes eleven design principles across them which are supported by detailed examples. This work contributes an extensive body of design principles, process models, and techniques providing researchers and designers with new tools to enrich the way robots communicate with humans

The Impact of Robot Tutor Social Behaviour on Children

Robotic technologies possess great potential to enter our daily lives because they have the ability to interact with our world. But our world is inherently social. Whilst humans often have a natural understanding of this complex environment, it is much more challenging for robots. The field of social Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) seeks to endow robots with the characteristics and behaviours that would allow for intuitive multimodal interaction. Education is a social process and previous research has found strong links between the social behaviour of teachers and student learning. This therefore presents a promising application opportunity for social human-robot interaction. The thesis presented here is that a robot with tailored social behaviour will positively influence the outcomes of tutoring interactions with children and consequently lead to an increase in child learning when compared to a robot without this social behaviour. It has long been established that one-to-one tutoring provides a more effective means of learning than the current typical school classroom model (one teacher to many students). Schools increasingly supplement their teaching with technology such as tablets and laptops to offer this personalised experience, but a growing body of evidence suggests that robots lead to greater learning than other media. It is posited that this is due to the increased social presence of a robot. This work adds to the evidence that robots hold a social advantage over other technological media, and that this indeed leads to increased learning. In addition, the work here contributes to existing knowledge by seeking to expand our understanding of how to manipulate robot social behaviour in educational interactions such that the behaviour is tailored for this purpose. To achieve this, a means of characterising social behaviour is required, as is a means of measuring the success of the behaviour for the interaction. To characterise the social behaviour of the robot, the concept of immediacy is taken from the human-human literature and validated for use in HRI. Greater use of immediacy behaviours is also tied to increased cognitive learning gains in humans. This can be used to predict the same effect for the use of social behaviour by a robot, with learning providing an objective measure of success for the robot behaviour given the education application. It is found here that when implemented on a robot in tutoring scenarios, greater use of immediacy behaviours generally does tend to lead to increased learning, but a complex picture emerges. Merely the addition of more social behaviour is insufficient to increase learning; it is found that a balance should be struck between the addition of social cues, and the congruency of these cues