Some physical and thermodynamic properties of organic melts

Imperial Users onl

Ferroelectrics

Ferroelectric materials exhibit a wide spectrum of functional properties, including switchable polarization, piezoelectricity, high non-linear optical activity, pyroelectricity, and non-linear dielectric behaviour. These properties are crucial for application in electronic devices such as sensors, microactuators, infrared detectors, microwave phase filters and, non-volatile memories. This unique combination of properties of ferroelectric materials has attracted researchers and engineers for a long time. This book reviews a wide range of diverse topics related to the phenomenon of ferroelectricity (in the bulk as well as thin film form) and provides a forum for scientists, engineers, and students working in this field. The present book containing 24 chapters is a result of contributions of experts from international scientific community working in different aspects of ferroelectricity related to experimental and theoretical work aimed at the understanding of ferroelectricity and their utilization in devices. It provides an up-to-date insightful coverage to the recent advances in the synthesis, characterization, functional properties and potential device applications in specialized areas

Generalized averaged Gaussian quadrature and applications

A simple numerical method for constructing the optimal generalized averaged Gaussian quadrature formulas will be presented. These formulas exist in many cases in which real positive GaussKronrod formulas do not exist, and can be used as an adequate alternative in order to estimate the error of a Gaussian rule. We also investigate the conditions under which the optimal averaged Gaussian quadrature formulas and their truncated variants are internal

MS FT-2-2 7 Orthogonal polynomials and quadrature: Theory, computation, and applications

Quadrature rules find many applications in science and engineering. Their analysis is a classical area of applied mathematics and continues to attract considerable attention. This seminar brings together speakers with expertise in a large variety of quadrature rules. It is the aim of the seminar to provide an overview of recent developments in the analysis of quadrature rules. The computation of error estimates and novel applications also are described

Modelling of linebreak in high-pressure gas pipes

Although there are many computer codes available for analysis of fluid transients, only. a few are known to be applicable to line break situations and their scope is limited. There is therefore,s till a big potential for development work in the subject. Discrepancies between different models which have been developed have mainly centred on the assumptions used in developing the basic partial differential equations of flow, and subsequent simplifications; the thermophysical model used; representation of various terms in the equations such as the friction term; and the numerical method of solution of the basic partial differential equations. A previous model developed by Tiley (1989), overestimated the actual wave speeds and had problems of instability of the solution. A new approach, in which the three basic partial differential equation of flow are derived, based on the assumption of an unsteady quasi-one-dimensional flow of a real gas through a rigid constant cross-section area pipe, and using the Gamma Delta method is used. No further simplification is made on the basic equations. Significant improvements have been made on the type of equation of state, thermodynamic model, heat transfer approximation and friction factor representation. The QUANT software for thermodynamic and transport properties of real gases is used. A flow dependent explicit equation of Chen (1979) is used to calculate the frictional force and heat transfer is calculated using the concept of recovery factor and adiabatic wall temperature. Numerical solution of the basic equations is performed using the third-order Warming- Kutler-Lomax method, the second-order MacCormack method and the method of characteristics. A pc based computer coding with the C language is used. The QUANT software has successfully been incorporated with the programme. The full benefits of the software could not be realised with linebreak problems due to limitation of the range within which it gives output at present, but satisfactory results have nevertheless been attained. An improved and more accurate way of calculating the break boundary condition has been used. A non-uniform grid spacing has been used, which allow fine grid spacing in the vicinity of the break in order to enable accurate modelling of the rapid transients occurring in that part. Two different models for calculating the heat transfer i. e. one for the case of pipes exposed to the atmosphere and buried pipes have been incorporated with the model. Experimental data from full-scale pipeline tests is used to validate the computer models. Results from the computer model simulations show good agreement with the experimental data. The MacCormack method has been found to be unsuitable for modelling transient flow following linebreak in high-pressure gas pipelines. The method of characteristics has proved to be the method of solution for such applications. A better understanding of the flow following a break in high-pressure gas pipes is achieved, especially the decompression behaviour at the break boundary. Data gathered from feasibility studies conducted in the late 1980's for a pipeline in Tanzania is used to validate the steady state analysis model and to simulate a linebreak in the pipeline. Results of the computer simulation are discussed and recommendations made on the suitability the pipeline design. Additional work is recommended on refining and further testing of the computer programmes and using the Gamdeleps method which covers all the three phases region i. e. gas, liquid and gas/liqui

Material characterization and modeling for piezoelectric actuation and power generation under high electromechanical driving levels

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2002.Includes bibliographical references (p. 257-262).High electromechanical loads parallel to piezoelectric polarization might result in depolarization of the material, depending on the material property itself and the external excitations such as electrical field, electrical driving frequency, stress and stress duration. In this work, material properties under these effects were first characterized experimentally. The experiments included monitoring general piezoelectric responses of PZT-5H and PZT-5A subjected to large electric excitations (butterfly curves) under various static compressions and measuring generalized piezoelectric constants under short and open circuit conditions for actuation of PZT-5A and power generation of PZT-5H, single crystals PZN-PT, and single crystals PMN-PT. To model these observed material behaviors, one- and three-dimensional rate dependent nonlinear constitutive models based on thermodynamic potentials for PZT-5H and PZT-5A piezoelectric materials were then developed. An internal variable, net remnant polarization D*, was used to simulate the hysteric behaviors of piezoelectric materials. An evolution law of D* was derived to specify the rate dependent responses of the materials. The parameters of the material models were determined by minimizing the error between the data and the models. The material models were capable of describing the responses subjected to large electric excitations under static compression, but incapable of predicting accurate piezoelectric constants under dynamic compression. This flaw was believed due to the absence of stress rate dependency in the models. It was also found that the PZT-5A model performed worse than the PZT-5H model because of its highly hysteretic strain-polarization relation.(cont.) This hysteresis could be explained by the slow switching rate of 90-degree domain movement. Finally, to simulate devices under non-uniform field or with irregular geometries using these material models, differential algebraic equations for mixed finite element analysis of 3-D nonlinear rate dependent piezoelectric materials were formulated and solved numerically by DASPK solver. Using 4-node tetrahedral elements, this formulation was demonstrated by examples with uniform and skewed electric excitations. The combination of the nonlinear mixed FEM model and the material model provided a useful tool for modeling the response of active devices with complicated geometries and irregular boundary conditions.by Ching-Yu Lin.Ph.D

1. Ultrasonic studies of binary liquid structure in the critical region. Theory and experiment for the 2,6-lutidine/water system. 2. Hartree-Fock calculations of electric polarizabilities of some simple atoms and molecules, and their practicality. 3. Calculation of vibrational transition probabilities in collinear atom-diatom and diatom-diatom collisions with Lennard-Jones interaction

Part 1. Many interesting visual and mechanical phenomena occur in the critical region of fluids, both for the gas-liquid and liquid-liquid transitions. The precise thermodynamic and transport behavior here has some broad consequences for the molecular theory of liquids. Previous studies in this laboratory on a liquid-liquid critical mixture via ultrasonics supported a basically classical analysis of fluid behavior by M. Fixman (e. g., the free energy is assumed analytic in intensive variables in the thermodynamics)--at least when the fluid is not too close to critical. A breakdown in classical concepts is evidenced close to critical, in some well-defined ways. We have studied herein a liquid-liquid critical system of complementary nature (possessing a lower critical mixing or consolute temperature) to all previous mixtures, to look for new qualitative critical behavior. We did not find such new behavior in the ultrasonic absorption ascribable to the critical fluctuations, but we did find extra absorption due to chemical processes (yet these are related to the mixing behavior generating the lower consolute point). We rederived, corrected, and extended Fixman's analysis to interpret our experimental results in these more complex circumstances. The entire account of theory and experiment is prefaced by an extensive introduction recounting the general status of liquid state theory. The introduction provides a context for our present work, and also points out problems deserving attention. Interest in these problems was stimulated by this work but also by work in Part 3. Part 2. Among variational theories of electronic structure, the Hartree-Fock theory has proved particularly valuable for a practical understanding of such properties as chemical binding, electric multipole moments, and X-ray scattering intensity. It also provides the most tractable method of calculating first-order properties under external or internal one-electron perturbations, either developed explicitly in orders of perturbation theory or in the fully self-consistent method. The accuracy and consistency of first-order properties are poorer than those of zero-order properties, but this is most often due to the use of explicit approximations in solving the perturbed equations, or to inadequacy of the variational basis in size or composition. We have calculated the electric polarizabilities of H2, He, Li, Be, LiH, and N2 by Hartree-Fock theory, using exact perturbation theory or the fully self-consistent method, as dictated by convenience. By careful studies on total basis set composition, we obtained good approximations to limiting Hartree-Fock values of polarizabilities with bases of reasonable size. The values for all species, and for each direction in the molecular cases, are within 8% of experiment, or of best theoretical values in the absence of the former. Our results support the use of unadorned Hartree-Pock theory for static polarizabilities needed in interpreting electron-molecule scattering data, collision-induced light scattering experiments, and other phenomena involving experimentally inaccessible polarizabilities. Part 3. Numerical integration of the close-coupled scattering equations has been carried out to obtain vibrational transition probabilities for some models of the electronically adiabatic H2-H2 collision. All the models use a Lennard-Jones interaction potential between nearest atoms in the collision partners. We have analyzed the results for some insight into the vibrational excitation process in its dependence on the energy of collision, the nature of the vibrational binding potential, and other factors. We conclude also that replacement of earlier, simpler models of the interaction potential by the Lennard-Jones form adds very little realism for all the complication it introduces. A brief introduction precedes the presentation of our work and places it in the context of attempts to understand the collisional activation process in chemical reactions as well as some other chemical dynamics.</p

Space programs summary number 37-29, volume iv for the period august 1, 1964 to september 30, 1964. supporting research and advanced development

Systems, guidance and control, engineering mechanics and facilities, propulsion, space sciences, and telecommunications researc

Quantitative off-axis Electron Holography and (multi-)ferroic interfaces

A particularly interesting class of modern materials is ferroic ceramics. Their characteristic order parameter is a result of quantum chemistry taking place on a sub-Å length scale and long-range couplings, e.g. mediated by electrostatic or stress fields. Furthermore, the particular subclass of multiferroics possesses more than one order parameter and exhibits an intriguing coupling between them, which is interesting both from the fundamental physics point of view as well as from a technological vantage point. While on a more fundamental level it is desirable to elucidate the physical details of the coupling mechanism, this knowledge could subsequently lead to new and technologically interesting multiferroic materials, which overcome their current drawback that only one of the multiple order parameters is appreciably large while the others stay small. Due to the short and long range nature of the driving forces, one challenge for thoroughly understanding ferroic ceramics is the characterization of material properties within a large interval of length scales from several tens of µm to sub-Å. To that end, it is useful to exploit that all order parameters can be described as macroscopic fields, e.g. electric polarization or strain, which, in turn, can be either directly or indirectly probed with an electron beam such as used in Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Consequently, TEM is excellently suited for investigating ferroic materials, i.e., state-of-the-art instruments facilitate aberration corrected imaging within a large magnification interval covering the length scales of interest, in particular the atomic regime. A general drawback of conventional TEM techniques is the loss of phase information originally contained in the scattered electron wave introduced by recording only the electron density. Electron Holography is an advanced TEM technique that facilitates the complete evaluation of the complex electron wave, which, in combination with the manifold possibilities of TEM, provides rather straightforward access to static electromagnetic fields within the ceramic. Nevertheless, quantification of order parameters such as the electric polarization or minute details in electromagnetic fields still require to correlate the experimentally gained observations to physical models, which combine the details of the microscopic imaging process, the electron-specimen scattering, and solid state physics of the specimen. The goal of this work is to investigate and advance the limits of Electron Holography as a truly quantitative TEM technique and apply the findings in, e.g., the investigation of ferroic ceramics. In the light of the previously mentioned difficulties, the problem has to be tackled from different directions: Firstly, the whole holographic imaging process is reviewed and extended, if necessary, in order to provide quantitative measures for systematic and statistical errors inherent to reconstructed waves. In the course of that process, two previously not recognized holography-specific aberrations are identified, firstly, a resolution limiting spatial envelope and secondly, a spatial distortion to the reconstructed wave. Furthermore, several correction strategies have been developed, in order to correct the aforementioned two and other well-known disturbances, e.g. Fresnel fringes from the biprism filament. The previous holographic noise model has been extended to incorporate the important contribution from the detector and consequently to provide realistic statistic error bars of the holographically reconstructed amplitude and phase. Secondly, an investigation of the electron-specimen scattering process itself is conducted, leading to a density matrix description of the holographic measurement. The general laws of quantum electrodynamics provide the framework of that description. Relativistic phenomena such as retardation of electromagnetic fields exchanged between beam electron and specimen and spin-orbit coupling of the beam electron are quantified, where the latter is found to be negligible within TEM. The decoherence of the electron wave by statistical coupling to the thermally moving crystal lattice of ceramics is treated by a newly developed algorithm facilitating in particular the accurate quantification of elastic scattering on heavy elements. Inelastic excitations in the ceramic, e.g. bulk plasmons or core electrons, are treated in combination with elastic scattering to identify their role in the holographic reconstruction process and to develop methods for an accurate calculation. A new scattering algorithm combining elastic and inelastic scattering is developed and applied to predict peculiar scattering contrasts of dipole transitions and to discuss the long-standing problem of contrast mismatch between scattering simulations and conventional imaging. To provide a user-friendly and continuing use of the findings, a software package SEMI (Simulation of Electron Microscopy Imaging) has been written, which facilitates the simulation of elastic and inelastic scattering processes and the subsequent imaging within different approximations, incorporating the newly developed algorithms. Thirdly, Density Function Theory (DFT) solid state calculations have been employed to identify and quantify structural modifications and characteristic electromagnetic fields, such as occurring at domain boundaries, within typical ferroic ceramics like BaTiO3 or BiFeO3, and concomitantly provide models correlating observables of the (holographic) experiment to characteristics of the materials, e.g. the order parameters. This is particularly important when static electromagnetic fields provide no direct information about the order parameter, e.g. the electric polarization, i.e., it is possible to correlate the measurable atomic positions to the electric polarization within linear response theory. A software package ATA (AuTomated Atomic contrast fitting) has been developed facilitating an automated fitting of atomic positions and a subsequent determination of local polarization. In a fourth step, electron holographic experiments analyzed with the help of the revised imaging process in combination with the knowledge gained from scattering theory are used as an input to the models established from solid state physics to yield quantitative information about bulk ferroelectric materials such as BaTiO3 and PbTiO3 and more complicated configurations such as domain walls in BiFeO3 and KnbO3. It is found that particular atomic shifts characteristic for ferroelectrics provide the most reliable quantitative information about the polarization down to nm length scales, whereas minute wave modification due to characteristic electron distributions within the ceramic are currently insufficiently quantitatively interpretable within Electron Holography. The linear response program, correlating atomic positions to ferroelectric polarization with the help of ab-initio calculated Born effective charges, has been successfully applied to determine finite size effects, screening layer widths and polarization charges in non-ferroelectric/ferroelectric layered systems. Finally, a special section considers the evaluation of 3D electromagnetic fields by Electron Holographic Tomography, which provides the means to characterize even more complex 3D domain wall configurations. As the capabilities of the technique are still limited by holographic reconstruction errors and particular tomographic issues such as incomplete projection data, the main focus of that section is put on the characterization and improvement of the tomographic reconstruction process. A Singular Value based reconstruction method is developed, which facilitates a quantification and control of the tomographic reconstruction error. Furthermore, vector field reconstruction is extended in order to treat magnetic vector fields leaking out from the reconstruction volume.Ferroische Keramiken bilden eine besonders interessante Klasse moderner funktionaler Werkstoffe. Ihr charakteristischer Ordnungsparameter ist das Ergebnis quantenchemischer Prozesse innerhalb einer sub- Å Längenskala und spezifischer langreichweitiger Kopplungen, welche beispielsweise durch elektromagnetische oder Spannungsfelder vermittelt werden. Des Weiteren besitzt die besondere Unterklasse der Multiferroika mehr als einen Ordnungsparameter und zeigt eine faszinierende Kopplung zwischen ihnen, was sowohl vom Standpunkt physikalischer Grundlagenforschung als auch aus technologischer Sicht von Interesse ist. Während es vom fundamentalen Standpunkt erstrebenswert ist, die physikalischen Details des Kopplungsmechanismus aufzuklären, könnte in der Folge dieses Wissen zu neuen und technologisch interessanten multiferroischen Materialien führen, welche den derzeit bestehenden Nachteil, dass nur ein Ordnungsparameter genügend groß ist, während die jeweils anderen klein bleiben, hinter sich lassen. Aufgrund der kurz- und langreichweitigen Natur der Antriebskräfte besteht eine Herausforderung für das umfassende Verständnis ferroischer Keramiken aus der Charakterisierung von Materialeigenschaften innerhalb eines breiten Intervalls von Längenskalen, welches von einigen 10 µm bis unterhalb eines Å reicht. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen ist es zweckmäßig auszunutzen, dass alle Ordnungsparameter als makroskopische, beispielsweise elektrostatische oder Verzerrungs-, Felder beschrieben werden können, welche wiederum direkt oder indirekt mit einem Elektronenstrahl, wie er im Transmissionselektronenmikrokop (TEM) zur Anwendung kommt, gemessen werden können. Folglich ist die Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie hervorragend geeignet um ferroische Materialien zu untersuchen, das heißt, modernste Geräte ermöglichen aberrationskorrigierte Aufnahmen innerhalb eines großen Vergrößerungsbereiches, welche die interessanten Längenskalen und insbesondere den atomaren Bereich abdecken. Ein allgemeiner Nachteil der konventionellen TEM Techniken ist der Verlust der Phaseninformationen, welche ursprünglich in der Elektronenwelle vorhanden sind und durch die Aufzeichnung der Elektronenintensität zerstört werden. Elektronenholographie ist eine weiterentwickelte TEM Technik, welche die vollständige Auswertung der komplexen Elektronenwelle ermöglicht, was wiederum in Verbindung mit den vielfältigen Möglichkeiten der TEM einen vergleichsweise direkten Zugang zu elektromagnetischen Feldern in der Keramik ermöglicht. Nichtsdestotrotz erfordert die Quantifizierung von Ordnungsparametern, wie der elektrische Polarisierung, oder von kleinsten Details elektromagnetischer Felder die Korrelation experimenteller Daten mit physikalischen Modellen, welche die Details des mikroskopischen Bildgebungsprozesses mit der Elektronen-Objekt Streuung und der Festkörperphysik des Objektes kombinieren. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit besteht aus der Untersuchung und Erweiterung der Möglichkeiten von Elektronenholographie als quantitative TEM Messmethode und der Anwendung dieser Ergebnisse bei der Untersuchung ferroischer Keramiken. Im Lichte der eben erwähnten Schwierigkeiten muss das Problem von verschiedenen Richtungen bearbeitet werden: Erstens wird der komplette holographische Bildgebungsprozess mit dem Ziel einer quantitativen Bewertung systematischer und statistischer Fehler der rekonstruierten Welle analysiert und gegebenenfalls erweitert. Im diesem Zuge wurden zwei bisher nicht erkannte holographiespezifische Fehler identifiziert, erstens eine auflösungsbegrenzende räumliche Enveloppe und zweitens eine räumliche Verzerrung der rekonstruierten Welle. Außerdem wurden verschiedene Korrekturmöglichkeiten entwickelt, um die zwei eben genannten und andere wohlbekannte Störungen, wie zum Beispiel die Fresnelstreifen des Biprismafadens, zu korrigieren. Das bisherige holographische Rauschmodel wurde erweitert um den beträchtlichen Einfluss des Detektors zu berücksichtigen und damit realistische Fehlerbalken für die holographisch rekonstruierte Amplitude und Phase zu erhalten. Zum Zweiten wird der Streuprozess selber untersucht, was zu einer Dichtematrixbeschreibung der holographischen Messung führt. Den Rahmen dieser Untersuchungen liefern die Gesetze der Quantenelektrodynamik. Relativistische Phänomene wie die Retardierung elektromagnetischer Felder, welche zwischen Strahlelektron und Objekt ausgetauscht werden, oder Spin-Bahn Kopplung des Strahlelektrons werden quantifiziert, wobei letzteres als unwichtig für TEM eingestuft werden konnte. Die Dekohärenz der Elektronenwelle durch die statistische Kopplung an das thermisch bewegte Kristallgitter der Keramik wird mit einem neu entwickelten Algorithmus beschrieben, welcher insbesondere die genaue Quantifizierung der elastischen Streuung an schweren Elementen erlaubt. Ein weiterer neuer Streualgorithmus, welcher elastische und inelastische Streuung kombiniert, wird entwickelt und angewendet, um spezifische Streukontraste von Dipolübergängen vorauszusagen und das altbekannte Problem der Kontrastdiskrepanz zwischen simulierten und experimentellen Bildkontrasten zu diskutieren. Um eine anwenderfreundliche und fortdauernde Anwendung der Erkenntnisse zu ermöglichen, wurde das Softwarepaket SEMI geschrieben, welches die Simulation elastischer und inelastischer Streuprozesse und des nachfolgenden Bildgebungsprozesses innerhalb verschiedener Näherungen ermöglicht und die neu entwickelten Algorithmen beinhaltet. Zum Dritten kommen dichtefunktionalbasierte Festkörperrechenmethoden zur Anwendung um charakteristische elektromagnetische Felder, wie sie beispielsweise an Domänengrenzen entstehen, innerhalb typischer ferroischer Keramiken wie BaTiO3 oder BiFeO3 zu identifizieren und zu quantifizieren und gleichzeitig Modelle zu entwickeln, welche Observablen des (holographischen) Experiments mit Charakteristika des Materials, beispielsweise den Ordnungsparamtern, korrelieren. Dies ist besonders wichtig, wenn statische elektromagnetische Felder keinen direkten Zugang zu den Ordnungsparametern, wie zum Beispiel die ferroelektrische Polarisation, liefern; beispielsweise besteht innerhalb linearer Antworttheorie die Möglichkeit, atomare Positionen mit der elektrischen Polarisation zu korrelieren. Ein Softwarepaket wurde entwickelt, welches die automatische Bestimmung der Atompositionen und der daraus resultierenden lokalen Polarisation ermöglicht. In einem vierten Schritt wurden mit Hilfe des überarbeiteten holographischen Bildgebungsprozesses in Kombination mit den aus der Streutheorie gewonnenen Erkenntnissen holographische Experimente analysiert und als Input für die mit Hilfe der Festkörpertheorie entwickelten Modelle genutzt, um quantitative Informationen über raumferroische Materialien wie BaTiO3 und PbTiO3 und kompliziertere Anordnungen wie Domänengrenzen in BiFeO3 und KnbO3 zu gewinnen. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass spezifische atomare Verschiebungen, welche charakteristisch für Ferroelektrika sind, die zuverlässigste quantitative Information über die Polarisation bis in den Längenbereich einiger nm liefern, wogegen kleinste Wellenmodifikationen aufgrund charakteristischer Elektronenverteilungen innerhalb der Keramik mit Hilfe von Elektronenholographie nur unzureichend interpretierbar sind. Das lineare Antwortprogramm, welches die Atompositionen über Bornsche effektive Ladungen mit ferroelektrischer Polarisation korreliert, wurde erfolgreich angewendet, um Größeneffekte und Ausdehnungen von Abschirmschichten und Polarisationladungen in nichtferroelektrisch/ferroelektrischen Schichtsystemen zu bestimmen. Abschließend widmet sich ein spezieller Abschnitt der Auswertung 3D elektromagnetischer Felder mit Hilfe der elektronenholographischen Tomographie, was die Voraussetzung für die Charakterisierung von noch komplizierteren 3D Domänenwandanordnungen liefert. Da die Möglichkeiten dieser Technik durch den holographischen Rekonstruktionsfehler und spezifisch tomographische Probleme noch beschränkt sind, liegt der Schwerpunkt dieses Abschnitts in der Charakterisierung und Verbesserung des tomographischen Rekonstruktionsprozesses. Es wird eine singulärwertbasierte Rekonstruktionsmethode entwickelt, welche die Quantifizierung und Kontrolle des Rekonstruktionsfehlers ermöglicht. Außerdem wird die Vektorfeldrekonstruktion erweitert, um magnetische Vektorfelder, welche über das Rekonstruktionsvolumen hinausragen, zu behandeln