Decoding Brain Activity Associated with Literal and Metaphoric Sentence Comprehension Using Distributional Semantic Models

Recent years have seen a growing interest within the natural language processing (NLP)community in evaluating the ability of semantic models to capture human meaning representation in the brain. Existing research has mainly focused on applying semantic models to de-code brain activity patterns associated with the meaning of individual words, and, more recently, this approach has been extended to sentences and larger text fragments. Our work is the first to investigate metaphor process-ing in the brain in this context. We evaluate a range of semantic models (word embeddings, compositional, and visual models) in their ability to decode brain activity associated with reading of both literal and metaphoric sentences. Our results suggest that compositional models and word embeddings are able to capture differences in the processing of literal and metaphoric sentences, providing sup-port for the idea that the literal meaning is not fully accessible during familiar metaphor comprehension

Modeling brain activity associated with metaphor processing with distributional semantic models

In this study we investigate how lexical-semantic relations associated with the literal meaning (and abstract meaning) are being accessed across the brain during familiar metaphor comprehension. We utilize a data-driven whole-brain searchlight similarity-decoding analysis. We contrast decoding metaphoric phrases (”she’s grasping the idea”) using distributional semantic models of the verb in the phrase (VERB model) versus that of the more abstract verb-sense (PARAPHRASE VERB model) obtained from literal paraphrases of the metaphoric phrases (”she’s understanding the idea”). We showed successful decoding with the VERB model across frontal, temporal and parietal lobes mainly within areas of the language and default-mode networks. In contrast, decoding with the PARAPHRASE VERB model was restricted to frontal-temporal lobes within areas of the language-network which overlapped to some extent with significant decoding with the VERB model. Overall, the results suggest that lexical-semantic relations closely associated with the abstract meaning in metaphor processing are largely localized to language and amodal (multimodal) semantic memory systems of the brain, while those more associated with the literal meaning are processed across a distributed semantic network including areas implicated in mental imagery and social-cognitio

The challenge of abstract concepts

Abstract concepts (\u201cfreedom\u201d) differ from concrete ones (\u201ccat\u201d), as they do not have a bounded, identifiable, and clearly perceivable referent. The way in which abstract concepts are represented has recently become a topic of intense debate, especially because of the spread of the embodied approach to cognition. Within this framework concepts derive their meaning from the same perception, motor, and emotional systems that are involved in online interaction with the world. Most of the evidence in favor of this view, however, has been gathered with regard to concrete concepts. Given the relevance of abstract concepts for higher-order cognition, we argue that being able to explain how they are represented is a crucial challenge that any theory of cognition needs to address. The aim of this article is to offer a critical review of the latest theories on abstract concepts, focusing on embodied ones. Starting with theories that question the distinction between abstract and concrete concepts, we review theories claiming that abstract concepts are grounded in metaphors, in situations and introspection, and in emotion. We then introduce multiple representation theories, according to which abstract concepts evoke both sensorimotor and linguistic information. We argue that the most promising approach is given by multiple representation views that combine an embodied perspective with the recognition of the importance of linguistic and social experience. We conclude by discussing whether or not a single theoretical framework might be able to explain all different varieties of abstract concepts

The Abstract Language: Symbolic Cogniton And Its Relationship To Embodiment

Embodied theories presume that concepts are modality specific while symbolic theories suggest that all modalities for a given concept are integrated. Symbolic and embodied theories do fairly well with explaining and describing concrete concepts. Specifically, embodied theories seem well suited to describing the actual content of a concept while symbolic theories provide insight into how concepts operate. Conversely, neither symbolic nor embodied theories have been fully sufficient when attempting to describe and explain abstract concepts. Several pluralistic accounts have been put forth to describe how the semantic/lexical system interacts with the conceptual system. In this respect, they attempt to “embody” abstract concepts to the same extent as concrete concepts. Nevertheless, a concise and comprehensive theory for explaining how we learn/understand abstract concepts to the extent that we learn/understand concrete concepts remains elusive. One goal of the present review paper is to consider if abstract concepts can be defined by a unified theory or if subsets of abstract concepts will be defined by separate theories. Of particular focus will be Symbolic Interdependency Theory (SIT). It will be argued that SIT is suitable for grounding abstract concepts, as this theory infers that symbols bootstrap meaning from other symbols, highlighting the importance of abstract-to-abstract mapping in the same way that concrete-to-abstract mappings are created. Research will be considered to help outline a cohesive strategy for describing and understanding abstract concepts. Finally, as research has demonstrated efficiencies with concrete concept processing, analogous efficiencies will be explored for developing an understanding of abstract concepts. Such efforts could have both theoretical and practical implications for bolstering our knowledge of concept learning

The semantic transparency of English compound nouns

What is semantic transparency, why is it important, and which factors play a role in its assessment? This work approaches these questions by investigating English compound nouns. The first part of the book gives an overview of semantic transparency in the analysis of compound nouns, discussing its role in models of morphological processing and differentiating it from related notions. After a chapter on the semantic analysis of complex nominals, it closes with a chapter on previous attempts to model semantic transparency. The second part introduces new empirical work on semantic transparency, introducing two different sets of statistical models for compound transparency. In particular, two semantic factors were explored: the semantic relations holding between compound constituents and the role of different readings of the constituents and the whole compound, operationalized in terms of meaning shifts and in terms of the distribution of specifc readings across constituent families. All semantic annotations used in the book are freely available

The semantic transparency of English compound nouns

What is semantic transparency, why is it important, and which factors play a role in its assessment? This work approaches these questions by investigating English compound nouns. The first part of the book gives an overview of semantic transparency in the analysis of compound nouns, discussing its role in models of morphological processing and differentiating it from related notions. After a chapter on the semantic analysis of complex nominals, it closes with a chapter on previous attempts to model semantic transparency. The second part introduces new empirical work on semantic transparency, introducing two different sets of statistical models for compound transparency. In particular, two semantic factors were explored: the semantic relations holding between compound constituents and the role of different readings of the constituents and the whole compound, operationalized in terms of meaning shifts and in terms of the distribution of specifc readings across constituent families

Sociocognitive metaphorm

This thesis analyses tense and aspect, in particular the Aspect Hypothesis (Salaberry & Shirai 2002; Bardovi-Harlig 2000; Andersen & Shirai 1996) and introduces an approach to teaching it: sociocognitive metaphorm (SCM). Sociocognitive is a combination of sociocultural theory (Lantolf & Appel 1996; Lantolf 2000) and cognitive grammar (Langacker 1987,1991). These theories are compatible because they share the psycholinguistic position that language and language development are conceptually based. Metaphorm is a combination of metaphor and form. Metaphor is central to concept development (i.e., conceptual metaphor). Form refers to grammatical structure. Much of temporal relations are expressed metaphorica1ly and hence metaphor also plays an essential role in the tense-aspect conceptualisation, grammaticalisation and acquisition process. The thesis is divided into four parts: Developing SCM, SCM Theory, Researching SCM and Applying SCM. Developing SCM contains a second language acquisition analysis of the Aspect Hypothesis as well as a diachronic and synchronic grammatical meta-analysis of aspect. SCM Theory outlines the process of integrating cognitive grammar with sociocultural theory. Vygotskian (1978, 1986) approaches to learning development, in particular, the zone of proximal development (ZPD), playa prominent role in this part. Researching SCM presents quantitative and qualitative results from a holistic (i.e., metaphoric) empirical classroom study designed to illuminate teaching tense-aspect as sociocognitive metaphorm as well as results from a more analytical (i.e., metonymic) follow-up study investigating the sequence and rate of acquisition of perfect aspect and future tense. The holistic study was longitudinal involving eleven different taskplans to teach grammar through metaphor. The follow-up research study analyses a sequence of instruction based upon conceptualisation processes. The tmal part, Applying SCM, to illustrate the sociocognitive pedagogical approach to teaching grammar as metaphor, includes revised taskplans that were utilised in the empirical research part of this study. The thesis concludes with a summary of the conceptual nature of tense-aspect as well as suggestions for teaching it