Effect of VR Device – HMD and Screen Display – on the sickness for Driving Simulation

In this article, an experimental procedure is presented in order to evaluate HMD oculus and medium range field of view ECO2 static simulator according to driving simulation sickness. The driving simulation sickness is investigated with respect to SSQ (simulator sickness questionnaire) and vestibular dynamics (head movements) of the driver participants for a specific driving scenario. The scenario of driving task is created by using open source “iiVR (institut image virtual reality)” software which is developed by Institut Image Arts et Métiers ParisTech. The experiments are executed in static mode for driving simulator

Height Simulation in a Virtual Reality CAVE System: Validity of Fear Responses and Effects of an Immersion Manipulation

Acrophobia is characterized by intense fear in height situations. Virtual reality (VR) can be used to trigger such phobic fear, and VR exposure therapy (VRET) has proven effective for treatment of phobias, although it remains important to further elucidate factors that modulate and mediate the fear responses triggered in VR. The present study assessed verbal and behavioral fear responses triggered by a height simulation in a 5-sided cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE) with visual and acoustic simulation and further investigated how fear responses are modulated by immersion, i.e., an additional wind simulation, and presence, i.e., the feeling to be present in the VE. Results revealed a high validity for the CAVE and VE in provoking height related self-reported fear and avoidance behavior in accordance with a trait measure of acrophobic fear. Increasing immersion significantly increased fear responses in high height anxious (HHA) participants, but did not affect presence. Nevertheless, presence was found to be an important predictor of fear responses. We conclude that a CAVE system can be used to elicit valid fear responses, which might be further enhanced by immersion manipulations independent from presence. These results may help to improve VRET efficacy and its transfer to real situations

Could people with stereo-deficiencies have a rich 3D experience using HMDs?

People with stereo-deficiencies usually have problems for the perception of depth using stereo devices. This paper presents a study that involves participants who did not have stereopsis and participants who had stereopsis. The two groups of participants were exposed to a maze navigation task in a 3D environment in two conditions, using a HMD and a large stereo screen. Fifty-nine adults participated in our study. From the results, there were no statistically significant differences for the performance on the task between the participants with stereopsis and those without stereopsis. We found statistically significant differences between the two conditions in favor of the HMD for the two groups of participants. The participants who did not have stereopsis and could not perceive 3D when looking at the Lang 1 Stereotest did have the illusion of depth perception using the HMD. The study suggests that for the people who did not have stereopsis, the head tracking largely influences the 3D experience

WoaH: A Virtual Reality Work-at-Height Simulator

We present WoaH, a virtual reality work-at-height simulator aimed at (i) testing whether future workers are able to manage their stress when high up and thus easily detect susceptibility to vertigo, and (ii) training in a typical work-at-height engineering operation. The simulator is composed of a real ladder synchronized in position with a virtual one placed 11 meters above the ground in a virtual environment. Visualization is done through a head-mounted display (HMD). We conducted a first user study evaluating our simulator in terms of cybersickness, perceived realism and anxiety, through both subjective (questionnaires) and objective (electrodermal activity) measurements, and testing whether vibratory cues could enhance the level of anxiety felt. Results indicate thatWoaH generates anxiety as expected and is perceived as realistic. Adding vibrations had significant impact on the perceived realism but not on the electro-dermal activity. These first results bring insights to future developments for a deployment in companies dealing with work at height.Enedis Bourgogn

The Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy Module for Reducing Acrophobia Symptoms

The amount of places that require a person to be in high-altitude circumstances is a barrier for people who are afraid of heights or also known as acrophobia. The therapist can offer a 3D stimulus using Virtual Reality (VR), making it a more efficient alternative to exposure treatments. Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy is the practice of exposing oneself to a fearful stimulus via a VR camera (VRET). The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of the VRET module in reducing acrophobia symptoms. The pretest-posttest control group design was utilized in the study. Participants with acrophobia were separated into two groups: the control (n=14) and the experimental (n=15) who received VRET treatment. They completed the Acrophobia Questionnaire (AQ) before and after the nine VRET sessions. Compared to control condition, participants in the experimental group reported lower scores in AQ-Anxiety and AQ-Avoidance. Furthermore, each exposure session results in a significant decrease in psychological assessments utilizing the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Autonomic Perception Questionnaire scales. A significant decrease has also occurred in the Respiratory Rate and Skin Conductance indicators. According to the findings of this study, the VRET module is effective in reducing the psychological and physiological symptoms of acrophobia

Simulation sickness comparison between a limited field of view virtual reality head mounted display (Oculus) and a medium range field of view static ecological driving simulator (Eco2)

In this article, an experimental procedure is presented in order to evaluate the role of having HMD oculus and (Eco2 driving simulator) in terms of driving simulation sickness. The driving simulation sickness is investigated with respect to SSQ (simulator sickness questionnaire) and vestibular dynamics (head movements) of the driver participants for a specific driving scenario. The scenario of driving task is created by using open source “iiVR (institut image virtual reality)” software which is developed by Institut Image Arts et Métiers ParisTech. The experiments are executed in static mode for the driving simulators

Measuring prefrontal cortex response to virtual reality exposure therapy in freely moving participants

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy has demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of phobias; yet little is known about its underlying neural mechanisms. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that both traditional exposure therapy and virtual reality exposure therapy normalise brain activity within a prefrontal - amygdalar fear circuit after the treatment. However, the previous studies employed technologies that perhaps impact on ecological validity and naturalness of experience. Moreover, there are no studies investigating what is happening in the brain within a virtual reality session. This PhD takes a multidisciplinary approach and draws upon research areas of cognitive neuroscience, neuropsychology, and virtual reality. The approach is twofold - developmental and experimental. A key methodological objective was to maximise ecological validity by allowing freedom of movement and sight of one’s own body. This was approached by combining wearable fNIRS within Immersive Projection Technology (IPT). The stimulus was adapted from a classic VR experiment - Pit Room. The scope of this PhD includes three experiments. The first pilot experiment tested the potential of combining the wearable Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) device – NIRSport, with virtual reality (VR) display - CAVE-like Immersive Projection Technology (IPT) system – Octave. The aim was to test the feasibility of the protocol in terms of the design, integration of technology, and signal to noise ratio in the Pit Room study, which involved measuring brain response during exposure to heights in virtual reality. The study demonstrated that brain activity could be measured in IPT without a significant signal interference. Although there was no significant change in brain activity during exposure to virtual heights, the study found trends toward increased HbO in the prefrontal cortex. The second study investigated the brain activity indicative of fear inhibition and cognitive reappraisal within a single session of VRET in healthy controls. The heart rate was also measured as an indicator of emotional arousal (fear response) during the VRET session. 27 healthy volunteers were exposed to heights in virtual reality. Changes in oxygenated haemoglobin concentration in the prefrontal cortex were measured in three blocks using a wireless fNIRS, and heart rate was measured using a wireless psychophysiological monitor. Results revealed increased HbO concentration in the DLPFC and MPFC during exposure to the fear-evoking VR, consistent with fear inhibition and cognitive reappraisal measured in previous neuroimaging studies that had not used VR. Within-session brain activity was measured at much higher temporal resolution than in previous studies. Consistent with previous studies, a trend showed an increase of brain activity in the DLPFC indicative of cognitive reappraisal at the beginning of the session. Then additionally the MPFC was activated consistent with fear inhibition. The heart rate showed a trend towards a gradual decrease within a session. The aim of the third study was to investigate the neural basis of VRET in an acrophobic population. In particular, the study focused on measuring functional brain activity associated with both within- and between-session learning. Psychophysiological monitoring was also employed to measure levels of emotional arousal within- and between sessions. 13 acrophobic volunteers took part in three-session VRET for a fear of heights. Changes in HbO in the prefrontal cortex were measured in three blocks to investigate within–session brain activity and across three sessions to investigate between-session inhibitory learning. Results demonstrated that phobic participants have decreased activity in the DLPFC and MPFC at the beginning, however, after three sessions of VRET, activity in these brain areas increased towards normal (measured in healthy controls). Although there was no within-session learning during the first and second session, the study found a significant increase in the DLPFC at the beginning of a session. During the second block, additionally, the MPFC was activated. The magnitude of brain activity in those regions was negatively correlated with the initial level of acrophobia. Due to the technical difficulties, no significant results were found in psychophysiological measures. However, subjective fear ratings decreased significantly within- and between sessions. Moreover, participants who felt more present demonstrated stronger results in brain activity at the end of VRET. This is the first project that investigated the neural correlates of fear inhibition and inhibitory learning by combining a VR display in which people can move around and see their body, with wearable neural imaging that gave a reasonable compromise between spatial and temporal resolution. This project has an application in widening access to immersive neuroimaging across understanding, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of, a range of mental disorders such as phobia, anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder. An application that is receiving an interest in the clinical community is repeatable, direct and quantifiable assessment within clinics, to diagnose, steer treatment and measure treatment outcome

VR systems for memory assessment and depth perception

La evolución de la tecnología de Realidad Virtual (RV) ha contribuido en todos los campos, incluyendo la psicología. Esta evolución implica mejoras tanto en hardware como en software, que permiten experiencias más inmersivas. En un entorno de RV los usuarios pueden percibir la sensación de "presencia" y sentirse "inmersos". Estas sensaciones son posibles utilizando HMDs. Hoy en día, el desarrollo de los HMDs se ha centrado en mejorar sus características técnicas para ofrecer inmersión total. En psicología, los entornos de RV son una herramienta de investigación. Hay algunas aplicaciones para evaluar la memoria espacial que utilizan métodos básicos de interacción. Sin embargo, sistemas de RV que incorporen estereoscopía y movimiento físico todavía no se han explotado en psicología. En esta tesis, se ha desarrollado un nuevo sistema de RV que combina características inmersivas, interactivas y de movimiento. El sistema de RV (tarea en un laberinto virtual) se ha utilizado para evaluar la memoria espacial y la percepción de profundidad. Se han integrado dos tipos diferentes de interacción: una basada en locomoción que consistió en pedalear en una bicicleta fija (condición1) y otra estacionaria usando un gamepad (condición2). El sistema integró dos tipos de visualización: 1) Oculus Rift (OR); 2) Una gran pantalla estéreo. Se diseñaron dos estudios. El primer estudio (N=89) evaluó la memoria espacial a corto plazo usando el OR y los dos tipos de interacción. Los resultados indican que existían diferencias significativas entre ambas condiciones. Los participantes que utilizaron la condición2 obtuvieron mejor rendimiento que los que utilizaron la tarea en la condición1. Sin embargo, no se encontraron diferencias significativas en las puntuaciones de satisfacción e interacción entre ambas condiciones. El desempeño en la tarea correlacionó con el desempeño en las pruebas neuropsicológicas clásicas, revelando la verosimilitud entre ellas. El segundo estudio (N=59) incluyó participantes con y sin estereopsis. Este estudio evaluó la percepción de profundidad comparando los dos sistemas de visualización. Los participantes realizaron la tarea usando la condición2. Los resultados mostraron que las diferentes características del sistema de visualización no influyeron en el rendimiento en la tarea entre los participantes con y sin estereopsis. Se encontraron diferencias significativas a favor del HMD entre las dos condiciones y entre los dos grupos de participantes respecto a la percepción de profundidad. Los participantes que no tenían estereopsis y no podían percibir la profundidad cuando utilizaban otros sistemas de visualización, tuvieron la ilusión de percepción de profundidad cuando utilizaron el OR. El estudio sugiere que para las personas que no tienen estereopsis, el seguimiento de la cabeza influye en gran medida en la experiencia 3D. Los resultados estadísticos de ambos estudios han demostrado que el sistema de RV desarrollado es una herramienta apropiada para evaluar la memoria espacial a corto plazo y la percepción de profundidad. Por lo tanto, los sistemas de RV que combinan inmersión total, interacción y movimiento pueden ser una herramienta útil para la evaluación de procesos cognitivos humanos como la memoria. De estos estudios se han extraído las siguientes conclusiones generales: 1) La tecnología de RV y la inmersión proporcionada por los actuales HMDs son herramientas adecuadas para aplicaciones psicológicas, en particular, la evaluación de la memoria espacial a corto plazo; 2) Un sistema de RV como el presentado podría ser utilizado como herramienta para evaluar o entrenar adultos en habilidades relacionadas con la memoria espacial a corto plazo; 3) Los dos tipos de interacción utilizados para la navegación en el laberinto virtual podrían ser útiles para su uso con diferentes colectivos; 4) El OR permite que los usuarios sin estereopsis puedan percibir lThe evolution of Virtual Reality (VR) technology has contributed in all fields, including psychology. This evolution involves improvements in hardware and software allowing more immersive experiences. In a VR environment users can perceive the sensation of "presence" and feel "immersed". These sensations are possible using VR devices as HMDs. Nowadays, the development of the HMDs has focused on improving their technical features to offer full immersion. In psychology, VR environments are research tools because they allow the use of new paradigms that are not possible to employ in a real environment. There are some applications for assessing spatial memory that use basic methods of HCI. However, VR systems that incorporate stereoscopy and physical movement have not yet been exploited in psychology. In this thesis, a novel VR system combining immersive, interactive and motion features was developed. This system was used for the assessment of the spatial memory and the evaluation of depth perception. For this system, a virtual maze task was designed and implemented. In this system, two different types of interaction were integrated: a locomotion-based interaction pedaling a fixed bicycle (condition1), and a stationary interaction using a gamepad (condition2). This system integrated two types of display systems: 1) The Oculus Rift; 2) A large stereo screen. Two studies were designed to determine the efficacy of the VR system using physical movement and immersion. The first study (N=89) assessed the spatial short term memory using the Oculus Rift and the two types of interaction The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between both conditions. The participants who performed the condition2 got better performance than participants who performed the condition1. However, there were no statistically significant differences in satisfaction and interaction scores between both conditions. The performance on the task correlated with the performance on other classical neuropsychological tests, revealing a verisimilitude between them. The second study (N=59) involved participants who had and who had not stereopsis. This study assessed the depth perception by comparing the two display systems. The participants performed the task using the condition2. The results showed that the different features of the display system did not influence the performance on the task between the participants with and without stereopsis. Statistically significant differences were found in favor of the HMD between the two conditions and between the two groups of participants regard to depth perception. The participants who did not have stereopsis and could not perceive the depth when they used other display systems (e.g. CAVE); however, they had the illusion of depth perception when they used the Oculus Rift. The study suggests that for the people who did not have stereopsis, the head tracking largely influences the 3D experience. The statistical results of both studies have proven that the VR system developed for this research is an appropriate tool to assess the spatial short-term memory and the depth perception. Therefore, the VR systems that combine full immersion, interaction and movement can be a helpful tool for the assessment of human cognitive processes as the memory. General conclusions from these studies are: 1) The VR technology and immersion provided by current HMDs are appropriate tools for psychological applications, in particular, the assessment of spatial short-term memory; 2) A VR system like the one presented in this thesis could be used as a tool to assess or train adults in skills related to spatial short-term memory; 3) The two types of interaction (condition1 and condition2) used for navigation within the virtual maze could be helpful to use with different collectives; 4) The Oculus Rift allows that the users without stereopsis can perceive the depth perception of 3D objects and have rich 3D experiences.L'evolució de la tecnologia de Realitat Virtual (RV) ha contribuït en tots els camps, incloent la psicologia. Aquesta evolució implica millores en el maquinari i el programari que permeten experiències més immersives. En un entorn de RV, els usuaris poden percebre la sensació de "presència" i sentir-se "immersos". Aquestes sensacions són possibles utilitzant HMDs. Avui dia, el desenvolupament dels HMDs s'ha centrat a millorar les seves característiques tècniques per oferir immersió plena. En la psicologia, els entorns de RV són eines de recerca. Hi ha algunes aplicacions per avaluar la memòria espacial que utilitzen mètodes bàsics d'interacció. Tanmateix, sistemes de RV que incorporen estereoscòpia i moviment físic no s'han explotat en psicologia. En aquesta tesi, s'ha desenvolupat un sistema de RV novell que combina immersió, interacció i moviment. El sistema (tasca en un laberint virtual) s'ha utilitzat per a l'avaluació de la memòria espacial i la percepció de profunditat. S'han integrat dos tipus d'interacció: una interacció basada en locomoció pedalejant una bicicleta fixa (condició1), i l'altra una interacció estacionària usant un gamepad (condició2). S'han integrat dos tipus de sistemes de pantalla: 1) L'Oculus Rift; 2) Una gran pantalla estereoscòpica. Dos estudis van ser dissenyats. El primer estudi (N=89) va avaluar la memòria a curt termini i espacial utilitzant l'Oculus Rift i els dos tipus d'interacció. Els resultats indiquen que hi havia diferències significatives entre les dues condicions. Els participants que van utilitzar la condició2 van obtenir millor rendiment que els participants que van utilitzar la condició1. Tanmateix, no hi havia diferències significatives dins satisfacció i puntuacions d'interacció entre les dues condicions. El rendiment de la tasca va correlacionar amb el rendiment en les proves neuropsicològiques clàssiques, revelant versemblança entre elles. El segon estudi (N=59) va implicar participants que van tenir i que van haver-hi no estereopsis. Aquest estudi va avaluar la percepció de profunditat comparant els dos sistemes de pantalla. Els participants realitzen la tasca utilitzant la condició2. Els resultats van mostrar que les diferents característiques del sistema de pantalla no va influir en el rendiment en la tasca entre els participants qui tenien i els qui no tenien estereopsis. Diferències significatives van ser trobades a favor del HMD entre les dues condicions i entre els dos grups de participants. Els participants que no van tenir estereopsis i no podien percebre la profunditat quan van utilitzar altres sistemes de pantalla (per exemple, CAVE), van tenir la il.lusió de percepció de profunditat quan van utilitzar l'Oculus Rift. L'estudi suggereix que per les persones que no van tenir estereopsis, el seguiment del cap influeix en gran mesura en l'experiència 3D. Els resultats estadístics dels dos estudis han provat que el sistema de RV desenvolupat per aquesta recerca és una eina apropiada per avaluar la memòria espacial a curt termini i la percepció de profunditat. Per això, els sistemes de RV que combinen immersió plena, interacció i moviment poden ser una eina útil per la avaluació de processos cognitius humans com la memòria Les conclusions generals que s'han extret d'aquests estudis, són les següents: 1) La tecnologia de RV i la immersió proporcionada pels HMDs són eines apropiades per aplicacions psicològiques, en particular, la avaluació de memòria espacial a curt termini; 2) Un sistema de RV com el presentat podria ser utilitzat com a eina per avaluar o entrenar adults en habilitats relacionades amb la memòria espacial a curt termini; 3) Els dos tipus d'interacció utilitzats per navegació dins del laberint virtual podrien ser útils per al seu ús amb diferent col.lectius; 3) L'Oculus Rift permet que els usuaris que no tenen estereopsis puguen percebre la percepció de profunditat dels objectes 3D i tenirCárdenas Delgado, SE. (2017). VR systems for memory assessment and depth perception [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/94629TESI

Within- and between-session prefrontal cortex response to virtual reality exposure therapy for acrophobia

Exposure Therapy (ET) has demonstrated its efficacy in the treatment of phobias, anxiety and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), however, it suffers a high drop-out rate because of too low or too high patient engagement in treatment. Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) is comparably effective regarding symptom reduction and offers an alternative tool to facilitate engagement for avoidant participants. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that both ET and VRET normalize brain activity within a fear circuit. However, previous studies have employed brain imaging technology which restricts people’s movement and hides their body, surroundings and therapist from view. This is at odds with the way engagement is typically controlled. We used a novel combination of neural imaging and VR technology—Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) and Immersive Projection Technology (IPT), to avoid these limitations. Although there are a few studies that have investigated the effect of VRET on a brain function after the treatment, the present study utilized technologies which promote ecological validity to measure brain changes after VRET treatment. Furthermore, there are no studies that have measured brain activity within VRET session. In this study brain activity within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) was measured during three consecutive exposure sessions. N = 13 acrophobic volunteers were asked to walk on a virtual plank with a 6 m drop below. Changes in oxygenated (HbO) hemoglobin concentrations in the PFC were measured in three blocks using fNIRS. Consistent with previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, the analysis showed decreased activity in the DLPFC and MPFC during first exposure. The activity increased toward normal across three sessions. The study demonstrates potential efficacy of a method for measuring within-session neural response to virtual stimuli that could be replicated within clinics and research institutes, with equipment better suited to an ET session and at fraction of the cost, when compared to fMRI. This has application in widening access to, and increasing ecological validity of, immersive neuroimaging across understanding, diagnosis, assessment and treatment of, a range of mental disorders such as phobia, anxiety and PTSD or addictions