Closing the Loop with Graphical SLAM

(c) 2007 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other users, including reprinting/ republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted components of this work in other works.Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/TRO.2007.900608The problem of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) is addressed using a graphical method. The main contributions are a computational complexity that scales well with the size of the environment, the elimination of most of the linearization inaccuracies, and a more flexible and robust data association. We also present a detection criteria for closing loops.We show how multiple topological constraints can be imposed on the graphical solution by a process of coarse fitting followed by fine tuning. The coarse fitting is performed using an approximate system. This approximate system can be shown to possess all the local symmetries. Observations made during the SLAM process often contain symmetries, that is to say, directions of change to the state space that do not affect the observed quantities. It is important that these directions do not shift as we approximate the system by, for example, linearization. The approximate system is both linear and block diagonal. This makes it a very simple system to work with especially when imposing global topological constraints on the solution. These global constraints are nonlinear. We show how these constraints can be discovered automatically.We develop a method of testing multiple hypotheses for data matching using the graph. This method is derived from statistical theory and only requires simple counting of observations. The central insight is to examine the probability of not observing the same features on a return to a region. We present results with data from an outdoor scenario using a SICK laser scanner

The simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM):An overview

Positioning is a need for many applications related to mapping and navigation either in civilian or military domains. The significant developments in satellite-based techniques, sensors, telecommunications, computer hardware and software, image processing, etc. positively influenced to solve the positioning problem efficiently and instantaneously. Accordingly, the mentioned development empowered the applications and advancement of autonomous navigation. One of the most interesting developed positioning techniques is what is called in robotics as the Simultaneous Localization and Mapping SLAM. The SLAM problem solution has witnessed a quick improvement in the last decades either using active sensors like the RAdio Detection And Ranging (Radar) and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) or passive sensors like cameras. Definitely, positioning and mapping is one of the main tasks for Geomatics engineers, and therefore it's of high importance for them to understand the SLAM topic which is not easy because of the huge documentation and algorithms available and the various SLAM solutions in terms of the mathematical models, complexity, the sensors used, and the type of applications. In this paper, a clear and simplified explanation is introduced about SLAM from a Geomatical viewpoint avoiding going into the complicated algorithmic details behind the presented techniques. In this way, a general overview of SLAM is presented showing the relationship between its different components and stages like the core part of the front-end and back-end and their relation to the SLAM paradigm. Furthermore, we explain the major mathematical techniques of filtering and pose graph optimization either using visual or LiDAR SLAM and introduce a summary of the deep learning efficient contribution to the SLAM problem. Finally, we address examples of some existing practical applications of SLAM in our reality

iSAM2 : incremental smoothing and mapping using the Bayes tree

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2011. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Sage for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in International Journal of Robotics Research 31 (2012): 216-235, doi:10.1177/0278364911430419.We present a novel data structure, the Bayes tree, that provides an algorithmic foundation enabling a better understanding of existing graphical model inference algorithms and their connection to sparse matrix factorization methods. Similar to a clique tree, a Bayes tree encodes a factored probability density, but unlike the clique tree it is directed and maps more naturally to the square root information matrix of the simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) problem. In this paper, we highlight three insights provided by our new data structure. First, the Bayes tree provides a better understanding of the matrix factorization in terms of probability densities. Second, we show how the fairly abstract updates to a matrix factorization translate to a simple editing of the Bayes tree and its conditional densities. Third, we apply the Bayes tree to obtain a completely novel algorithm for sparse nonlinear incremental optimization, named iSAM2, which achieves improvements in efficiency through incremental variable re-ordering and fluid relinearization, eliminating the need for periodic batch steps. We analyze various properties of iSAM2 in detail, and show on a range of real and simulated datasets that our algorithm compares favorably with other recent mapping algorithms in both quality and efficiency.M. Kaess, H. Johannsson and J. Leonard were partially supported by ONR grants N00014-06-1-0043 and N00014-10-1-0936. F. Dellaert and R. Roberts were partially supported by NSF, award number 0713162, “RI: Inference in Large-Scale Graphical Models”. V. Ila has been partially supported by the Spanish MICINN under the Programa Nacional de Movilidad de Recursos Humanos de Investigación

An Improved Otsu Threshold Segmentation Method for Underwater Simultaneous Localization and Mapping-Based Navigation

The main focus of this paper is on extracting features with SOund Navigation And Ranging (SONAR) sensing for further underwater landmark-based Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM). According to the characteristics of sonar images, in this paper, an improved Otsu threshold segmentation method (TSM) has been developed for feature detection. In combination with a contour detection algorithm, the foreground objects, although presenting different feature shapes, are separated much faster and more precisely than by other segmentation methods. Tests have been made with side-scan sonar (SSS) and forward-looking sonar (FLS) images in comparison with other four TSMs, namely the traditional Otsu method, the local TSM, the iterative TSM and the maximum entropy TSM. For all the sonar images presented in this work, the computational time of the improved Otsu TSM is much lower than that of the maximum entropy TSM, which achieves the highest segmentation precision among the four above mentioned TSMs. As a result of the segmentations, the centroids of the main extracted regions have been computed to represent point landmarks which can be used for navigation, e.g., with the help of an Augmented Extended Kalman Filter (AEKF)-based SLAM algorithm. The AEKF-SLAM approach is a recursive and iterative estimation-update process, which besides a prediction and an update stage (as in classical Extended Kalman Filter (EKF)), includes an augmentation stage. During navigation, the robot localizes the centroids of different segments of features in sonar images, which are detected by our improved Otsu TSM, as point landmarks. Using them with the AEKF achieves more accurate and robust estimations of the robot pose and the landmark positions, than with those detected by the maximum entropy TSM. Together with the landmarks identified by the proposed segmentation algorithm, the AEKF-SLAM has achieved reliable detection of cycles in the map and consistent map update on loop closure, which is shown in simulated experiments

Gestion de mémoire pour la détection de fermeture de boucle pour la cartographie temps réel par un robot mobile

Pour permettre à un robot autonome de faire des tâches complexes, il est important qu'il puisse cartographier son environnement pour s'y localiser. À long terme, pour corriger sa carte globale, il est nécessaire qu'il détecte les endroits déjà visités. C'est une des caractéristiques les plus importantes en localisation et cartographie simultanée (SLAM), mais aussi sa principale limitation. La charge de calcul augmente en fonction de la taille de l'environnement, et alors les algorithmes n'arrivent plus à s'exécuter en temps réel. Pour résoudre cette problématique, l'objectif est de développer un nouvel algorithme de détection en temps réel d'endroits déjà visités, et qui fonctionne peu importe la taille de l'environnement. La détection de fermetures de boucle, c'est-à-dire la reconnaissance des endroits déjà visités, est réalisée par un algorithme probabiliste robuste d'évaluation de la similitude entre les images acquises par une caméra à intervalles réguliers. Pour gérer efficacement la charge de calcul de cet algorithme, la mémoire du robot est divisée en mémoires à long terme (base de données), à court terme et de travail (mémoires vives). La mémoire de travail garde les images les plus caractéristiques de l'environnement afin de respecter la contrainte d'exécution temps réel. Lorsque la contrainte de temps réel est atteinte, les images des endroits vus les moins souvent depuis longtemps sont transférées de la mémoire de travail à la mémoire à long terme. Ces images transférées peuvent être récupérées de la mémoire à long terme à la mémoire de travail lorsqu'une image voisine dans la mémoire de travail reçoit une haute probabilité que le robot soit déjà passé par cet endroit, augmentant ainsi la capacité de détecter des endroits déjà visités avec les prochaines images acquises. Le système a été testé avec des données préalablement prises sur le campus de l'Université de Sherbrooke afin d'évaluer sa performance sur de longues distances, ainsi qu'avec quatre autres ensembles de données standards afin d'évaluer sa capacité d'adaptation avec différents environnements. Les résultats suggèrent que l'algorithme atteint les objectifs fixés et permet d'obtenir des performances supérieures que les approches existantes. Ce nouvel algorithme de détection de fermeture de boucle peut être utilisé directement comme une technique de SLAM topologique ou en parallèle avec une technique de SLAM existante afin de détecter les endroits déjà visités par un robot autonome. Lors d'une détection de boucle, la carte globale peut alors être corrigée en utilisant la nouvelle contrainte créée entre le nouveau et l'ancien endroit semblable

Localização e mapeamento simultâneos em grandes ambientes : uma abordagem híbrida

Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, 2012.Mapeamento e localização simultâneos (SLAM, da sigla em inglês) é um dos assuntos mais pesquisados no campo da robótica. Este trabalho propõe uma abordagem de sistemas dinâmicos híbridos para tratar do problema de SLAM. Dentro desta perspectiva, desenvolve-se um modelomatemático para o problema de localização e mapeamento em grandes ambientes e propõe-se uma modificação no algoritmo do filtro híbrido IMM de forma a se alcançar um melhor desempenho durante o processo de estimação estocástica do vetor de estados do sistema. Este novo algoritmo, juntamente com a formulação mais tradicional FKE-SLAM e do filtro de partículas (FastSLAM), tem seu desempenho comparado por meio de dados de simulação. Sugere-se que a formulação apresentada neste trabalho pode superar os resultados disponíveis na literatura em termos de complexidade computacional. ______________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACTSimultaneous localization and mapping (the acronym, SLAM) is one of the most interesting topics in the field of robotics. This paper proposes a hybrid dynamic systems approach to address the problem of SLAM. Within this perspective, it develops a mathematical model to the problem of localization and mapping and propose a modification in the hybrid filter IMM algorithm in order to achieve better performance during the estimation process. This new algorithm, together with the formulation EKF-SLAM and FastSLAM, is compared by means of simulation data. It is suggested that the formulation presented in this paper can overcome the results available in the literature in terms of computational complexity

Algorithms and Methods for Received Signal Strength Based Wireless Localization

In the era of wireless communications, the demand for localization and localization-based services has been continuously growing, as increasingly smarter wireless devices have emerged to the market. Besides the already available satellite-based localization systems, such as the GPS and GLONASS, also other localization approaches are needed to complement the existing solutions. Finding different types of low-cost localization methods, especially for indoors, has become one of the most important research topics in recent years.One of the most used approaches in localization is based on Received Signal Strength (RSS) information. Specific fingerprints about RSS are collected and stored and positioning can be done through pattern or feature matching algorithms or through statistical inference. A great and immediate advantage of the RSS-based localization is its ability to exploit the already existing infrastructure of different communications networks without the need to install additional system hardware. Furthermore, due to the evident connection between the RSS level and the quality of a communications signal, the RSS is usually inherently included in the network measurements. This favors the availability of the RSS measurements in the current and future wireless communications systems.In this thesis, we study the suitability of RSS for localization in various communications systems including cellular networks, wireless local area networks, personal area networks, such as WiFi, Bluetooth and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags. Based on substantial real-life measurement campaigns, we study different characteristics of RSS measurements and propose several Path Loss (PL) models to capture the essential behavior of the RSS levels in 2D outdoor and 3D indoor environments. By using the PL models, we show that it is possible to attain similar performance to fingerprinting with a database size of only 1-2% of the database size needed in fingerprinting. In addition, we study the effect of different error sources, such as database calibration errors, on the localization accuracy. Moreover, we propose a novel method for studying how coverage gaps in the fingerprint database affect the localization performance. Here, by using various interpolation and extrapolation methods, we improve the localization accuracy with imperfect fingerprint databases, such as those including substantial cover-age gaps due to inaccessible parts of the buildings

Long-term robot mapping in dynamic environments

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2011.Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.Includes bibliographical references (p. 139-144).One of the central goals in mobile robotics is to develop a mobile robot that can construct a map of an initially unknown dynamic environment. This is often referred to as the Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) problem. A number of approaches to the SLAM problem have been successfully developed and applied, particularly to a mobile robot constructing a map of a 2D static indoor environment. While these methods work well for static environments, they are not robust to dynamic environments which are complex and composed of numerous objects that move at wide-varying time-scales, such as people or office furniture. The problem of maintaining a map of a dynamic environment is important for both real-world applications and for the advancement of robotics. A mobile robot executing extended missions, such as autonomously collecting data underwater for months or years, must be able to reliably know where it is, update its map as the environment changes, and recover from mistakes. From a fundamental perspective, this work is important in order to understand and determine the problems that occur with existing mapping techniques for persistent long-term operation. The primary contribution of the thesis is Dynamic Pose Graph SLAM (DPG-SLAM), a novel algorithm that addresses two core challenges of the long-term mapping problem. The first challenge is to ensure that the robot is able to remain localized in a changing environment over great lengths of time. The second challenge is to be able to maintain an up-to-date map over time in a computationally efficient manner. DPG-SLAM directly addresses both of these issues to enable long-term mobile robot navigation and map maintenance in changing environments. Using Kaess and Dellaert's incremental Smoothing and Mapping (iSAM) as the underlying SLAM state estimation engine, the dynamic pose graph evolves over time as the robot explores new areas and revisits previously mapped areas. The algorithm is demonstrated on two real-world dynamic indoor laser data sets, demonstrating the ability to maintain an efficient, up-to-date map despite long-term environmental changes. Future research issues, such as the integration of adaptive exploration with dynamic map maintenance, are identified.by Aisha Naima Walcott.Ph.D

Robust and efficient robotic mapping

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2008.Includes bibliographical references (p. 123-129).Mobile robots are dependent upon a model of the environment for many of their basic functions. Locally accurate maps are critical to collision avoidance, while large-scale maps (accurate both metrically and topologically) are necessary for efficient route planning. Solutions to these problems have immediate and important applications to autonomous vehicles, precision surveying, and domestic robots. Building accurate maps can be cast as an optimization problem: find the map that is most probable given the set of observations of the environment. However, the problem rapidly becomes difficult when dealing with large maps or large numbers of observations. Sensor noise and non-linearities make the problem even more difficult especially when using inexpensive (and therefore preferable) sensors. This thesis describes an optimization algorithm that can rapidly estimate the maximum likelihood map given a set of observations. The algorithm, which iteratively reduces map error by considering a single observation at a time, scales well to large environments with many observations. The approach is particularly robust to noise and non-linearities, quickly escaping local minima that trap current methods. Both batch and online versions of the algorithm are described. In order to build a map, however, a robot must first be able to recognize places that it has previously seen. Limitations in sensor processing algorithms, coupled with environmental ambiguity, make this difficult. Incorrect place recognitions can rapidly lead to divergence of the map. This thesis describes a place recognition algorithm that can robustly handle ambiguous data. We evaluate these algorithms on a number of challenging datasets and provide quantitative comparisons to other state-of-the-art methods, illustrating the advantages of our methods.by Edwin B. Olson.Ph.D

Cartographie, localisation et planification simultanées ‘en ligne’, à long terme et à grande échelle pour robot mobile

Pour être en mesure de naviguer dans des endroits inconnus et non structurés, un robot doit pouvoir cartographier l’environnement afin de s’y localiser. Ce problème est connu sous le nom de cartographie et localisation simultanées (ou SLAM pour Simultaneous Localization and Mapping). Une fois la carte de l’environnement créée, des tâches requérant un déplacement d’un endroit connu à un autre peuvent ainsi être planifiées. La charge de calcul du SLAM est dépendante de la grandeur de la carte. Un robot a une puissance de calcul embarquée limitée pour arriver à traiter l’information ‘en ligne’, c’est-à-dire à bord du robot avec un temps de traitement des données moins long que le temps d’acquisition des données ou le temps maximal permis de mise à jour de la carte. La navigation du robot tout en faisant le SLAM est donc limitée par la taille de l’environnement à cartographier. Pour résoudre cette problématique, l’objectif est de développer un algorithme de SPLAM (Simultaneous Planning Localization and Mapping) permettant la navigation peu importe la taille de l’environment. Pour gérer efficacement la charge de calcul de cet algorithme, la mémoire du robot est divisée en une mémoire de travail et une mémoire à long terme. Lorsque la contrainte de traitement ‘en ligne’ est atteinte, les endroits vus les moins souvent et qui ne sont pas utiles pour la navigation sont transférées de la mémoire de travail à la mémoire à long terme. Les endroits transférés dans la mémoire à long terme ne sont plus utilisés pour la navigation. Cependant, ces endroits transférés peuvent être récupérées de la mémoire à long terme à la mémoire de travail lorsque le le robot s’approche d’un endroit voisin encore dans la mémoire de travail. Le robot peut ainsi se rappeler incrémentalement d’une partie de l’environment a priori oubliée afin de pouvoir s’y localiser pour le suivi de trajectoire. L’algorithme, nommé RTAB-Map, a été testé sur le robot AZIMUT-3 dans une première expérience de cartographie sur cinq sessions indépendantes, afin d’évaluer la capacité du système à fusionner plusieurs cartes ‘en ligne’. La seconde expérience, avec le même robot utilisé lors de onze sessions totalisant 8 heures de déplacement, a permis d’évaluer la capacité du robot de naviguer de façon autonome tout en faisant du SLAM et planifier des trajectoires continuellement sur une longue période en respectant la contrainte de traitement ‘en ligne’ . Enfin, RTAB-Map est comparé à d’autres systèmes de SLAM sur quatre ensembles de données populaires pour des applications de voiture autonome (KITTI), balayage à la main avec une caméra RGB-D (TUM RGB-D), de drone (EuRoC) et de navigation intérieur avec un robot PR2 (MIT Stata Center). Les résultats montrent que RTAB-Map peut être utilisé sur de longue période de temps en navigation autonome tout en respectant la contrainte de traitement ‘en ligne’ et avec une qualité de carte comparable aux approches de l’état de l’art en SLAM visuel et avec télémètre laser. ll en résulte d’un logiciel libre déployé dans une multitude d’applications allant des robots mobiles intérieurs peu coûteux aux voitures autonomes, en passant par les drones et la modélisation 3D de l’intérieur d’une maison