Internet of Underground Things: Sensing and Communications on the Field for Precision Agriculture

The projected increases in World population and need for food have recently motivated adoption of information technology solutions in crop fields within precision agriculture approaches. Internet of underground things (IOUT), which consists of sensors and communication devices, partly or completely buried underground for real-time soil sensing and monitoring, emerge from this need. This new paradigm facilitates seamless integration of underground sensors, machinery, and irrigation systems with the complex social network of growers, agronomists, crop consultants, and advisors. In this paper, state-of-the-art communication architectures are reviewed, and underlying sensing technology and communication mechanisms for IOUT are presented. Recent advances in the theory and applications of wireless underground communication are also reported. Major challenges in IOUT design and implementation are identified

A Channel Model for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks Using Lateral Waves

Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSNs) are an emerging type of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), where sensor nodes are located under the ground and communicate through soil. The major challenge in the development of efficient communication protocols for WUSNs is the characterization of the underground channel. So far, none of the existing models fully capture all the components of electromagnetic signal propagation in the soil medium. In this paper, three major components that influence underground communication are identified: direct, reflected, and lateral waves, where the latter has not been analyzed for WUSNs so far. Accordingly, a closed-form three-wave (3W) channel model is developed based on EM propagation principles of signals through soil. The 3W channel model is shown to agree well with both underground testbed experiments and EM analysis based on Maxwell’s equations, which cannot be represented in closed-form

Current Advances in Internet of Underground Things

The latest developments in Internet of Underground Things are covered in this chapter. First, the IOUT Architecture is discussed followed by the explanation of the challenges being faced in this paradigm. Moreover, a comprehensive coverage of the different IOUT components is presented that includes communications, sensing, and system integration with the cloud. An in-depth coverage of the applications of the IOUT in various disciplines is also surveyed. These applications include areas such as decision agriculture, pipeline monitoring, border control, and oil wells

Decision Agriculture

In this chapter, the latest developments in the field of decision agriculture are discussed. The practice of management zones in digital agriculture is described for efficient and smart faming. Accordingly, the methodology for delineating management zones is presented. Modeling of decision support systems is explained along with discussion of the issues and challenges in this area. Moreover, the precision agriculture technology is also considered. Moreover, the chapter surveys the state of the decision agriculture technologies in the countries such as Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Israel, Malaysia, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Ukraine, and Sweden. Finally, different field factors such as GPS accuracy and crop growth are also analyzed

Numerical terrain modelling for wireless underground sensor networks: a protoype for nut tree plantations

Underground terrain poses a highly intricate and challenging environment to the propagation of waves carrying information from sensor to the sink nodes. Due to the complexity and level of detail, it is often difficult to realistically model such an environment for conducting tests. However, using numerical methods, the environment characteristics could be translated to a compatible framework, for testing complex networking models such as Wireless Underground Sensor Network (WUSN). Such transformation should lend the necessary clarity and simplicity required for effective problem analysis. In this paper, we demonstrate this possibility using the typical underground terrain environment for nut tree plantations, basing the field data on a full-fledged commercial pecan farm. The results shown are introductory to ongoing research on the effective use of such numerical methods for maximum power efficiency and bit rate for distributed WUSN, and optimum water usage in irrigation control. This paper forms a sequel to previous related research publications

Gigahertz channel modeling for wireless sensor networks operating in LNG environment

LNG (Sıvılaştırılmış Doğal Gaz) doğal gazın -162 ºC’de soğutulması ile oluşturulan temiz, renksiz ve zehirsiz bir sıvıdır. Bu soğutma işlemi sayesinde doğal gazın hacmi 600 kat daha küçültülerek, LNG’nin depolanmasını ve taşınmasını kolaylaştırmaktadır. LNG' nin özgül ağırlığı basınç, sıcaklık ve karışıma göre değişir ve ortalama 1,0 kg/litre su ile mukayese edildiğinde, 0,46 kg/litre’ye eşittir. LNG’nin özgül ağırlığının düşük olması elektromanyetik dalgaların yayılımı ve TDA (Telsiz Duyarga Ağları)’nın haberleşebilmesi için bir avantajdır. Ayrıca bu çalışmada TDA’lar için LNG yol kaybı, yansıma etkisi ve BHO (Bit Hata Oranı)’a ya göre LNG ortamı analiz edilip, modellenmiştir. Yayılım karakteristikleri teorik yaklaşım ile incelenmiştir. Teorik analizler ve simülasyon sonuçları 10 GHz – 13 GHz bant aralığında, 10 metre civarı bir kablosuz haberleşme olacağını ispatlamaktadır.LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) is a clear, colorless and non-toxic liquid which forms when natural gas is cooled to -162 ºC. The cooling process shrinks the volume of the gas 600 times, by this way making LNG easier and safer to store and ship. The density of LNG is around 0.46 kg/liter, depending on pressure, temperature, and composition, compared to water at 1.0 kg/liter. The lesser density of LNG is also an advantage for the propagation of the electromagnetic waves and communication of WSN (Wireless Sensor Networks) in LNG medium. Then here in this work LNG has analyzed according to path loss, multipath effect and providing an evaluation about the Bit Error Rate (BER) of the modelled channel depending on the LNG medium for WSNs. The propagation characteristics are investigated using a theoretical approach. The theoretical analysis and the simulation results prove the feasibility of wireless communication about 10 m range in the 10 GHz – 13 GHz band range in LNG medium

Signals in the Soil: An Introduction to Wireless Underground Communications

In this chapter, wireless underground (UG) communications are introduced. A detailed overview of WUC is given. A comprehensive review of research challenges in WUC is presented. The evolution of underground wireless is also discussed. Moreover, different component of UG communications is wireless. The WUC system architecture is explained with a detailed discussion of the anatomy of an underground mote. The examples of UG wireless communication systems are explored. Furthermore, the differences of UG wireless and over-the-air wireless are debated. Different types of wireless underground channel (e.g., In-Soil, Soil-to-Air, and Air-to-Soil) are reported as well