8 research outputs found

    Development of a Multimode Instrument for Remote Measurements of Unsaturated Soil Properties

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    The hydromechanical behavior of soil is governed by parameters that include the moisture content, soil matric potential, texture, and the mineralogical composition of the soil. Remote characterization of these and other key properties of the soil offers advantages over conventional in situ or laboratory-based measurements: information may be acquired rapidly over large, or inaccessible areas; samples do not need to be collected; and the measurements are non-destructive. A field-deployable, ground-based remote sensor, designated the Soil Observation Laser Absorption Spectrometer (SOLAS), was developed to infer parameters of bare soils and other natural surfaces over intermediate (100 m) and long (1,000 m) ranges. The SOLAS methodology combines hyperspectral remote sensing with differential absorption and laser ranging measurements. A transmitter propagates coherent, near-infrared light at on-line (823.20 nm) and off-line (847.00 nm) wavelengths. Backscattered light is received through a 203-mm diameter telescope aperture and is divided into two channels to enable simultaneous measurements of spectral reflectance, differential absorption, and range to the target. The spectral reflectance is measured on 2151 continuous bands that range from visible (380 nm) to shortwave infrared (2500 nm) wavelengths. A pair of photodetectors receive the laser backscatter in the 820โ€“850 nm range. Atmospheric water vapor is inferred using a differential absorption technique in conjunction with an avalanche photodetector, while range to the target is based on a frequency-modulated, self-chirped, homodyne detection scheme. The design, fabrication, and testing of the SOLAS is described herein. The receiver was optimized for the desired backscatter measurements and assessed through a series of trials that were conducted in both indoor and outdoor settings. Spectral reflectance measurements collected at proximal range compared well with measurements collected at intermediate ranges, demonstrating the utility of the receiver. Additionally, the noise characteristics of the spectral measurements were determined across the full range of the detected wavelengths. Continued development of the SOLAS instrument will enable range-resolved and water vapor-corrected reflectance measurements over longer ranges. Anticipated applications for the SOLAS technology include rapid monitoring of earth construction projects, geohazard assessment, or ground-thruthing for current and future satellite-based multi- and hyperspectral data

    Spectroradiometer Calibration for Radiance Transfer Measurements

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    Optical remote sensing and Earth observation instruments rely on precise radiometric calibrations which are generally provided by the broadband emission from large-aperture integrating spheres. The link between the integrating sphere radiance and an SI-traceable radiance standard is made by spectroradiometer measurements. In this work, the calibration efforts of a Spectra Vista Corporation (SVC) HR-1024i spectroradiometer are presented to study how these enable radiance transfer measurements at the Calibration Home Base (CHB) for imaging spectrometers at the Remote Sensing Technology Institute (IMF) of the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The spectral and radiometric response calibrations of an SVC HR-1024i spectroradiometer are reported, as well as the measurements of non-linearity and its sensitivity to temperature changes and polarized light. This achieves radiance transfer measurements with the calibrated spectroradiometer with relative expanded uncertainties between 1% and 3% (k=2) over the wavelength range of 380 nm to 2500 nm, which are limited by the uncertainties of the applied radiance standard

    Discerning Oriental from European beech by leaf spectroscopy: Operational and physiological implications

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    European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests have recently experienced severe diebacks that are expected to increase in future. Oriental beech (Fagus sylvatica spp. orientalis (Lipsky) Greut. & Burd) is a potential candidate for assisted migration (AM) in European forests due to its greater genetic diversity and potentially higher drought resistance. Yet AM entails not only benefits, but also risks, and it is therefore important to monitor the progression of introduced (sub)species. Here, we demonstrate the potential of leaf spectroscopy to replace resourceintensive genetic analysis and field phenotyping for the discrimination and characterization of these two beech subspecies. We studied two European beech forests, one in France and one in Switzerland, where Oriental beech from the Greater Caucasus was introduced over 100 years ago. During two summers (2021, 2022), we measured leaf spectral reflectance, leaf morphological and biochemical traits from genotyped adult trees. Subspecies prediction models were developed separately for top-of-canopy leaves (amenable to remote sensing) and bottom-of-canopy leaves (easier to harvest) using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and different sets of spectral predictors. Morphological, biochemical and spectra-derived leaf traits indicated that Oriental beech trees at the sites studied were characterized by higher lignin and nitrogen per unit leaf area than European beech, suggesting more protein-rich leaves on a per-area basis. The model based on top-of-canopy leaf reflectance spectra in the short-wave-infrared region (SWIR I: 1450โ€“1750 nm) most accurately distinguished Oriental from European beech (BA = 0.86 ยฑ 0.08, k = 0.72 ยฑ 0.15), closely followed by models based on SWIR II, and on spectra-derived traits (BA โ‰ฅ 0.84, k โ‰ฅ 0.67). This study provides a proof-of-principle for the development of spectroscopy-based approaches when monitoring introduced species, subspecies or provenances. Our findings hold promise for upscaling to large forest areas using airborne remote sensing

    Discerning Oriental from European beech by leaf spectroscopy : operational and physiological implications

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    European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests have recently experienced severe diebacks that are expected to increase in future. Oriental beech (Fagus sylvatica spp. orientalis (Lipsky) Greut. & Burd) is a potential candidate for assisted migration (AM) in European forests due to its greater genetic diversity and potentially higher drought resistance. Yet AM entails not only benefits, but also risks, and it is therefore important to monitor the progression of introduced (sub)species. Here, we demonstrate the potential of leaf spectroscopy to replace resource-intensive genetic analysis and field phenotyping for the discrimination and characterization of these two beech subspecies. We studied two European beech forests, one in France and one in Switzerland, where Oriental beech from the Greater Caucasus was introduced over 100 years ago. During two summers (2021, 2022), we measured leaf spectral reflectance, leaf morphological and biochemical traits from genotyped adult trees. Subspecies prediction models were developed separately for top-of-canopy leaves (amenable to remote sensing) and bottom-of-canopy leaves (easier to harvest) using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and different sets of spectral predictors. Morphological, biochemical and spectra-derived leaf traits indicated that Oriental beech trees at the sites studied were characterized by higher lignin and nitrogen per unit leaf area than European beech, suggesting more protein-rich leaves on a per-area basis. The model based on top-of-canopy leaf reflectance spectra in the short-wave-infrared region (SWIR I: 1450โ€“1750 nm) most accurately distinguished Oriental from European beech (BA = 0.86 ยฑ 0.08, k = 0.72 ยฑ 0.15), closely followed by models based on SWIR II, and on spectra-derived traits (BA โ‰ฅ 0.84, k โ‰ฅ 0.67). This study provides a proof-of-principle for the development of spectroscopy-based approaches when monitoring introduced species, subspecies or provenances. Our findings hold promise for upscaling to large forest areas using airborne remote sensing

    Cause, effect, and correction of field spectroradiometer interchannel radiometric steps

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    Field spectroradiometers are often comprised of several spectral detectors to sample the full range of reflected solar irradiance. An example of such an instrument is the Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD) full-range spectroradiometer, featuring three spectral detectors to capture spectra between 350 and 2500 nm. The resulting spectra often exhibit radiometric steps at the joints of these detectors. This study investigates the influence of external temperature and humidity on the magnitude of these steps by experiments based on a climate chamber. Relative radiometric errors at the detector borders were found to reach up to 16% for the visible and near infrared and 21% for the shortwave infrared 2 (SWIR2), whereas relative reflectance errors are target dependent, typically ranging between 2% and 6%. The derived sensor model provides a physically based explanation of the changes in radiometry due to temperature and demonstrates that all spectral bands are affected to a higher or lesser degree. The model can be used to correct for the effect of temperature on the recorded radiances. Applying the model to ASD instruments that were not tested in the climate chamber still leads to reasonable correction results with RMSE values of 0.6%

    Cause, Effect, and Correction of Field Spectroradiometer Interchannel Radiometric Steps

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    ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์›๊ฒฉ ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ๋“ค์„ ์ด์šฉํ•œ ์ง€์†์  ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ ๋ฐ ํƒœ์–‘ ์œ ๋„ ์—ฝ๋ก์†Œ ํ˜•๊ด‘๋ฌผ์งˆ ๊ด€์ธก

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ•์‚ฌ) -- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ํ™˜๊ฒฝ๋Œ€ํ•™์› ํ˜‘๋™๊ณผ์ • ์กฐ๊ฒฝํ•™, 2022.2. ๋ฅ˜์˜๋ ฌ.Monitoring phenology, physiological and structural changes in vegetation is essential to understand feedbacks of vegetation between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere by influencing the albedo, carbon flux, water flux and energy. To this end, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) from satellite remote sensing have been widely used. However, there are still limitations in satellite remote sensing as 1) satellite imagery could not capture fine-scale spatial resolution of SIF signals, 2) satellite products are strongly influenced by condition of the atmosphere (e.g. clouds), thus it is challenging to know physiological and structural changes in vegetation on cloudy days and 3) satellite imagery captured a mixed signal from over- and understory, thus it is difficult to study the difference between overstory and understory phenology separately. Therefore, in order to more accurately understand the signals observed from the satellite, further studies using near-surface remote sensing system to collect ground-based observed data are needed. The main purpose of this dissertation is continuous observation of vegetation phenology and SIF using near-surface remote sensing system. To achieve the main goal, I set three chapters as 1) developing low-cost filter-based near-surface remote sensing system to monitor SIF continuously, 2) monitoring SIF in a temperate evergreen needleleaf forest continuously, and 3) understanding the relationships between phenology from in-situ multi-layer canopies and satellite products. In Chapter 2, I developed the filter-based smart surface sensing system (4S-SIF) to overcome the technical challenges of monitoring SIF in the field as well as to decrease sensor cost for more comprehensive spatial sampling. I verified the satisfactory spectral performance of the bandpass filters and confirmed that digital numbers (DN) from 4S-SIF exhibited linear relationships with the DN from the hyperspectral spectroradiometer in each band (R2 > 0.99). In addition, we confirmed that 4S-SIF shows relatively low variation of dark current value at various temperatures. Furthermore, the SIF signal from 4S-SIF represents a strong linear relationship with QEpro-SIF either changing the physiological mechanisms of the plant using DCMU (3-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethyurea) treatment. I believe that 4S-SIF will be a useful tool for collecting in-situ data across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Satellite-based SIF provides us with new opportunities to understand the physiological and structural dynamics of vegetation from canopy to global scales. However, the relationships between SIF and gross primary productivity (GPP) are not fully understood, which is mainly due to the challenges of decoupling structural and physiological factors that control the relationships. In Chapter 3, I reported the results of continuous observations of canopy-level SIF, GPP, absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (APAR), and chlorophyll: carotenoid index (CCI) in a temperate evergreen needleleaf forest. To understand the mechanisms underlying the relationship between GPP and SIF, I investigated the relationships of light use efficiency (LUE_p), chlorophyll fluorescence yield (ฮฆ_F), and the fraction of emitted SIF photons escaping from the canopy (f_esc) separately. I found a strongly non-linear relationship between GPP and SIF at diurnal and seasonal time scales (R2 = 0.91 with a hyperbolic regression function, daily). GPP saturated with APAR, while SIF did not. In addition, there were differential responses of LUE_p and ฮฆ_F to air temperature. While LUE_p reached saturation at high air temperatures, ฮฆ_F did not saturate. I also found that the canopy-level chlorophyll: carotenoid index was strongly correlated to canopy-level ฮฆ_F (R2 = 0.84) implying that ฮฆ_F could be more closely related to pigment pool changes rather than LUE_p. In addition, I found that the f_esc contributed to a stronger SIF-GPP relationship by partially capturing the response of LUE_p to diffuse light. These findings can help refine physiological and structural links between canopy-level SIF and GPP in evergreen needleleaf forests. We do not fully understand what satellite NDVI derived leaf-out and full leaf dates actually observe because deciduous broadleaf forest consists of multi-layer canopies typically and mixed-signal from multi-layer canopies could affect satellite observation. Ultimately, we have the following question: What phenology do we actually see from space compared to ground observations on multi-layer canopy phenology? In Chapter 4, I reported the results of 8 years of continuous observations of multi-layer phenology and climate variables in a deciduous broadleaf forest, South Korea. Multi-channel spectrometers installed above and below overstory canopy allowed us to monitor over- and understory canopy phenology separately, continuously. I evaluated the widely used phenology detection methods, curvature change rate and threshold with NDVI observed above top of the canopy and compared leaf-out and full leaf dates from both methods to in-situ observed multi-layer phenology. First, I found that NDVI from the above canopy had a strong linear relationship with satellites NDVI (R2=0.95 for MODIS products and R2= 0.85 for Landsat8). Second, leaf-out dates extracted by the curvature change rate method and 10% threshold were well matched with understory leaf-out dates. Third, the full-leaf dates extracted by the curvature change rate method and 90% threshold were similar to overstory full-leaf dates. Furthermore, I found that overstory leaf-out dates were closely correlated to accumulated growing degree days (AGDD) while understory leaf-out dates were related to AGDD and also sensitive to the number of chill days (NCD). These results suggest that satellite-based leaf-out and full leaf dates represent understory and overstory signals in the deciduous forest site, which requires caution when using satellite-based phenology data into future prediction as overstory and understory canopy show different sensitivities to AGDD and NCD.์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ ๋ฐ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์ , ๊ตฌ์กฐ์ ์ธ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ชจ๋‹ˆํ„ฐ๋ง ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ์œก์ƒ์ƒํƒœ๊ณ„์™€ ๋Œ€๊ธฐ๊ถŒ ์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ์—๋„ˆ์ง€, ํƒ„์†Œ ์ˆœํ™˜ ๋“ฑ์˜ ํ”ผ๋“œ๋ฐฑ์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ํ•„์ˆ˜์ ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์œ„์„ฑ์—์„œ ๊ด€์ธก๋œ ์ •๊ทœํ™” ์‹์ƒ ์ง€์ˆ˜ (NDVI) ํƒœ์–‘ ์œ ๋„ ์—ฝ๋ก์†Œ ํ˜•๊ด‘๋ฌผ์งˆ (SIF)๋Š” ๋Œ€์ค‘์ ์œผ๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜, ์šฐ์ฃผ ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์ž๋ฃŒ๋Š” ๋‹ค์Œ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ํ•œ๊ณ„์ ๋“ค์ด ์กด์žฌํ•œ๋‹ค. 1) ์•„์ง๊นŒ์ง€ ๊ณ ํ•ด์ƒ๋„์˜ ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ SIF ์ž๋ฃŒ๋Š” ์—†๊ณ , 2) ์œ„์„ฑ ์ž๋ฃŒ๋“ค์€ ๋Œ€๊ธฐ์˜ ์งˆ (์˜ˆ, ๊ตฌ๋ฆ„)์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ›์•„, ํ๋ฆฐ ๋‚ ์˜ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์ , ๊ตฌ์กฐ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ํƒ์ง€ํ•˜๊ธฐ ํž˜๋“ค๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, 3) ์œ„์„ฑ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง€๋Š” ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ๊ณผ ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์ด ํ˜ผํ•ฉ๋˜์–ด ์„ž์ธ ์‹ ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ํƒ์ง€ํ•˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์—, ๊ฐ ์ธต์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ์—ฐ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ธฐ์— ์–ด๋ ค์›€์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋ฏ€๋กœ, ์œ„์„ฑ์—์„œ ํƒ์ง€ํ•œ ์‹ ํ˜ธ๋ฅผ ํ‰๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ , ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์ , ๊ตฌ์กฐ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ •ํ™•ํžˆ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์›๊ฒฉ ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•œ ์‹ค์ธก ์ž๋ฃŒ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ์š”๊ตฌ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ์˜ ์ฃผ ๋ชฉ์ ์€ ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์›๊ฒฉ ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ ๋ฐ SIF๋ฅผ ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ์‹ค์ธกํ•˜๊ณ , ์œ„์„ฑ ์˜์ƒ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ํ•œ๊ณ„์  ๋ฐ ๊ถ๊ธˆ์ฆ๋“ค์„ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ ๋ฐ ๋ณด์™„ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ชฉ์ ์„ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ, ์•„๋ž˜์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์„ธ๊ฐ€์ง€ Chapter: 1) SIF๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์ €๋ ดํ•œ ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ, 2)์˜จ๋Œ€ ์นจ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์—์„œ์˜ ์—ฐ์†์ ์ธ SIF ๊ด€์ธก, 3)์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ๊ณผ ์‹ค์ธกํ•œ ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ ๋น„๊ต๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑํ•˜๊ณ , ์ด๋ฅผ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. SIF๋Š” ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์ , ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ณ , ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ์ธ์ž๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด, SIF๋ฅผ ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์›๊ฒฉ ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ๋“ค์ด ์ตœ๊ทผ ์ œ์‹œ๋˜์–ด ์˜ค๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜, ์•„์ง๊นŒ์ง€ SIF๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ƒ์—…์ ์œผ๋กœ ์œ ํ†ต๋˜๋Š” ๊ด€์ธก ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์€ ํ˜„์ €ํžˆ ๋ถ€์กฑํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ถ„๊ด‘๊ณ„์˜ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์  ํŠน์„ฑ์ƒ ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ๊ด€์ธก ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ๋ณด์ • ๋ฐ ๊ด€๋ฆฌํ•˜๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋ ค์›Œ ๋†’์€ ์งˆ์˜ SIF๋ฅผ ์ทจ๋“ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ๋งค์šฐ ๋„์ „ ์ ์ธ ๋ถ„์•ผ์ด๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ํ•™์œ„ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์˜ Chapter 2์—์„œ๋Š” SIF๋ฅผ ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ๋ณด๋‹ค ์†์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ(Smart Surface Sensing System, 4S-SIF)์„ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์„ผ์„œ๋Š” ๋Œ€์—ญ ํ•„ํ„ฐ๋“ค๊ณผ ํฌํ† ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ๊ฐ€ ๊ฒฐํ•ฉ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์„œ๋ณด ๋ชจํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๋Œ€์—ญ ํ•„ํ„ฐ ๋ฐ ๊ด€์ธก ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ ์ž๋™์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณ€๊ฒฝํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ, ํ•œ ๊ฐœ์˜ ํฌํ† ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ๊ฐ€ 3๊ฐœ์˜ ํŒŒ์žฅ ๋ฒ”์œ„(757, 760, 770 nm)์˜ ๋น› ๋ฐ ํƒœ์–‘์œผ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์ž…์‚ฌ๋˜๋Š” ๊ด‘๋Ÿ‰๊ณผ ์‹์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐ˜์‚ฌ/๋ฐฉ์ถœ๋œ ๊ด‘๋Ÿ‰์„ ๊ด€์ธกํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋„๋ก ๊ณ ์•ˆ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ํฌํ† ๋‹ค์ด์˜ค๋“œ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์ธ์‹๋œ ๋””์ง€ํ„ธ ์ˆ˜์น˜ ๊ฐ’์€ ์ƒ์—…์ ์œผ๋กœ ํŒ๋งค๋˜๋Š” ์ดˆ๊ณ ํ•ด์ƒ๋„ ๋ถ„๊ด‘๊ณ„(QE Pro, Ocean Insight)์™€ ๋šœ๋ ทํ•œ ์„ ํ˜• ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค (R2 > 0.99). ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์œผ๋กœ, 4S-SIF์—์„œ ๊ด€์ธก๋œ SIF์™€ ์ดˆ๊ณ ํ•ด์ƒ๋„ ๋ถ„๊ด‘๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์ถ”์ถœํ•œ SIF๊ฐ€ ์„ ํ˜•์ ์ธ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์ด๋ฃจ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ผ์œผํ‚ค๋Š” ํ™”ํ•™ ๋ฌผ์งˆ์ธ DCMU(3-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethyurea)์„ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌํ–ˆ์Œ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ , ์‚ฐ์ถœ๋œ SIF๋“ค์€ ์„ ํ˜• ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์„ผ์„œ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์กด ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ๋“ค์— ๋น„ํ•ด ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜๊ธฐ ์‰ฝ๊ณ  ๊ฐ„๋‹จํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ์ €๋ ดํ•˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์‹œ๊ณต๊ฐ„์  ์Šค์ผ€์ผ์˜ SIF๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ธกํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์žฅ์ ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ SIF๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์ด์ผ์ฐจ์ƒ์‚ฐ์„ฑ(gross primary productivity, GPP)์„ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ์ตœ๊ทผ ํƒ„์†Œ ์ˆœํ™˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ถ„์•ผ์—์„œ ๊ฐ๊ด‘๋ฐ›๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์ฃผ์ œ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜, SIF์™€ GPP์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋Š” ์—ฌ์ „ํžˆ ๋งŽ์€ ๋ถˆํ™•์‹ค์„ฑ์„ ์ง€๋‹ˆ๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ด๋Š” SIF-GPP ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์กฐ์ ˆํ•˜๋Š” ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์  ๋ฐ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ์š”์ธ์„ ๋”ฐ๋กœ ๋ถ„๋ฆฌํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ๋ถ€์กฑํ•˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ํ•™์œ„ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์˜ Chapter 3์—์„œ๋Š” ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ SIF, GPP, ํก์ˆ˜๋œ ๊ด‘ํ•ฉ์„ฑ์œ ํšจ๋ณต์‚ฌ๋Ÿ‰ (absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, APAR), ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ํด๋กœ๋กœํ•„๊ณผ ์นด๋กœํ‹ฐ๋…ธ์ด๋“œ์˜ ๋น„์œจ ์ธ์ž (chlorophyll: carotenoid index, CCI)๋ฅผ ์˜จ๋Œ€์นจ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์—์„œ ์—ฐ์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. SIF-GPP ๊ด€๊ณ„์˜ ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์ธ ๋ฉ”์ปค๋‹ˆ์ฆ˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ฐํžˆ๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ, ๊ด‘ ์ด์šฉํšจ์œจ (light use efficiency, LUE_p), ์—ฝ๋ก์†Œ ํ˜•๊ด‘ ์ˆ˜๋“๋ฅ  (chlorophyll fluorescence yield, ฮฆ_F) ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  SIF ๊ด‘์ž๊ฐ€ ๊ตฐ๋ฝ์œผ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋ฐฉ์ถœ๋˜๋Š” ๋น„์œจ (escape fraction, f_esc)์„ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋„์ถœํ•˜๊ณ  ํƒ๊ตฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. SIF์™€ GPP์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋Š” ๋šœ๋ ทํ•œ ๋น„ ์„ ํ˜•์ ์ธ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ(R2 = 0.91 with a hyperbolic regression function, daily), ์ผ์ฃผ๊ธฐ ๋‹จ์œ„์—์„œ SIF๋Š” APAR์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์„ ํ˜•์ ์ด์—ˆ์ง€๋งŒ GPP๋Š” APAR์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ๋šœ๋ ทํ•œ ํฌํ™” ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์œผ๋กœ LUE_p ์™€ ฮฆ_F ๊ฐ€ ๋Œ€๊ธฐ ์˜จ๋„์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ฐ˜์‘ํ•˜๋Š” ์ •๋„๊ฐ€ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. LUE_p๋Š” ๋†’์€ ์˜จ๋„์—์„œ ํฌํ™” ๋˜์—ˆ์ง€๋งŒ, ฮฆ_F๋Š” ํฌํ™” ํŒจํ„ด์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ๊ตฐ๋ฝ ์ˆ˜์ค€์—์„œ์˜ CCI์™€ ฮฆ_F๊ฐ€ ๋šœ๋ ทํ•œ ์ƒ๊ด€ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค(R2 = 0.84). ์ด๋Š” ฮฆ_F๊ฐ€ ์—ฝ๋ก์†Œ ์ƒ‰์†Œ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ LUE_p์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋” ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ๊ด€๊ณ„๊ฐ€ ์žˆ์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Œ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ, f_esc๊ฐ€ ํƒœ์–‘๊ด‘์˜ ์‚ฐ๋ž€๋œ ์ •๋„์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ฐ˜์‘์„ ํ•˜์—ฌ, ฮฆ_F์™€ LUE_p์˜ ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ์ƒ๊ด€ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ํ˜•์„ฑํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฐœ๊ฒฌ์€ ์˜จ๋Œ€ ์นจ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์—์„œ ๊ตฐ๋ฝ ์ˆ˜์ค€์˜ SIF-GPP๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ๋ฐ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์  ์ธก๋ฉด์—์„œ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ํฐ ๋„์›€์ด ๋  ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์€ ์‹์ƒ์ด ์ฒ ์„ ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์ฃผ๊ธฐ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋Š” ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ˜์‘์ด๋‹ค. ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์€ ์œก์ƒ์ƒํƒœ๊ณ„์™€ ๋Œ€๊ธฐ๊ถŒ ์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ๋ฌผ์งˆ ์ˆœํ™˜์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ๋งค์šฐ ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ NDVI๋Š” ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ํƒ์ง€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์—ฐ๊ตฌํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋Œ€์ค‘์ ์œผ๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜, ํ™œ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์—์„œ์˜ ์œ„์„ฑ NDVI ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์‹ค์ œ ์–ด๋Š ์‹œ์ ์„ ํƒ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š”์ง€๋Š” ๋ถˆ๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์‹ค์ œ ํ™œ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์€ ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์˜ ์‚ผ์ฐจ์›์œผ๋กœ ์ด๋ฃจ์–ด์ ธ ์žˆ๋Š” ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด, ์œ„์„ฑ ์˜์ƒ์€ ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์‹ ํ˜ธ๊ฐ€ ์„ž์—ฌ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ด์ฐจ์›์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฌผ์ด๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ, ์œ„์„ฑ NDVI ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์ด ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ ๊ตฌ์กฐ๋ฅผ ์ด๋ฃจ๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ํ™œ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์—์„œ ์‹ค์ œ ํ˜„์žฅ ๊ด€์ธก๊ณผ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜์˜€์„ ๋•Œ ์–ด๋Š ์‹œ์ ์„ ํƒ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š”์ง€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ถ๊ธˆ์ฆ์ด ๋‚จ๋Š”๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ํ•™์œ„ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์˜ Chapter 4์—์„œ๋Š” ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ 8๋…„ ๋™์•ˆ ํ™œ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ๋‚ด์˜ ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์›๊ฒฉ ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ณ , ์œ„์„ฑ NDVI ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ๊ณผ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋‹ค์ฑ„๋„ ๋ถ„๊ด‘๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์œ„์™€ ์•„๋ž˜์— ์„ค์น˜ํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ, ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ๊ณผ ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ์—ฐ์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ํƒ์ง€ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ๋งŽ์ด ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ธ 1) ์—ญ์น˜๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๊ณผ 2) ์ด๊ณ„๋„ํ•จ์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์„ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๊ณ„์‚ฐํ•˜๊ณ  ์ด๋ฅผ ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ๊ณผ ๋น„๊ตํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ์ฒซ๋ฒˆ์งธ๋กœ, ๊ตฐ๋ฝ์˜ ์ƒ์ธต๋ถ€์—์„œ ์‹ค์ธกํ•œ NDVI์™€ ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ NDVI๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ์„ ํ˜• ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค (R2=0.95 ๋Š” MODIS ์˜์ƒ๋“ค ๋ฐ R2= 0.85 ๋Š” Landsat8). ๋‘๋ฒˆ์งธ๋กœ, ์ด๊ณ„๋„ํ•จ์ˆ˜ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๊ณผ 10%์˜ ์—ญ์น˜ ๊ฐ’์„ ์ด์šฉํ•œ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ด ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์ž„์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์„ธ๋ฒˆ์งธ๋กœ, ์ด๊ณ„๋„ํ•จ์ˆ˜ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๊ณผ 90%์˜ ์—ญ์น˜ ๊ฐ’์„ ์ด์šฉํ•œ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•์ด ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์‚ฐ์ถœํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์™€ ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์˜จ๋„์™€ ๋ฐ˜์‘ํ•˜๋Š” ์ •๋„๊ฐ€ ๋šœ๋ ทํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ฐจ์ด๊ฐ€ ๋‚˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋Š” ์ ์‚ฐ ์ƒ์žฅ ์˜จ๋„ ์ผ์ˆ˜ (AGDD)์™€ ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ์ƒ๊ด€์„ฑ์„ ๋ณด์˜€๊ณ , ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋Š” AGDD์™€ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ์„ ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ์ถ”์œ„ ์ผ์ˆ˜(NCD)์—๋„ ๋ฏผ๊ฐํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐ˜์‘ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ์œ„์„ฑ NDVI ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋Š” ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์™€ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ฑ์ด ๋†’๊ณ , ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋Š” ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ๊ณผ ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์ด ์˜จ๋„์— ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋ฏผ๊ฐ์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ์–ด, ์œ„์„ฑ์—์„œ ์‚ฐ์ถœ๋œ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ธฐํ›„๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•  ๋•Œ, ์–ด๋–ค ์ธต์˜ ์‹์ƒ์ด ์œ„์„ฑ ์˜์ƒ์— ์ฃผ๋œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š”์ง€ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•œ๋‹ค. ์œ„์„ฑ์€ ๋„“์€ ์ง€์—ญ์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์†์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ๋ชจ๋‹ˆํ„ฐ๋งํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด ๋งŽ์€ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ–๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ๋„๊ตฌ์ด์ง€๋งŒ, ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ •ํ™•ํ•œ ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ด€์ธก ๊ฐ’์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ๊ด€์ธก๋œ ์ž๋ฃŒ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ๊ฒ€์ฆ์ด ์š”๊ตฌ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ํ•™์œ„ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” 1) ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ, 2) ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ํ™œ์šฉํ•œ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ๊ตฌ์กฐ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”์˜ ์ง€์†์ ์ธ ๊ด€์ธก, 3) ๋‹ค์ธต ์‹์ƒ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์—์„œ ๊ด€์ธก๋˜๋Š” ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ ๋ฐ ์œ„์„ฑ์—์„œ ์ถ”์ •๋œ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์˜ ์—ฐ๊ด€์„ฑ ํ‰๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ฐœ๋ฐœํ•œ ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์„œ๋Š” ์ƒ์—… ์„ผ์„œ๋“ค๊ณผ ๋น„๊ตํ–ˆ์„ ๋•Œ, ๊ฐ€๊ฒฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ €๋ ดํ•˜๊ณ  ์† ์‰ฝ๊ฒŒ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์„ฑ๋Šฅ์ ์œผ๋กœ๋„ ๋ถ€์กฑํ•จ์ด ์—†์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ SIF๋ฅผ ์˜จ๋Œ€ ์นจ์—ฝ์ˆ˜๋ฆผ์—์„œ ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€์ธกํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ์ด์ผ์ฐจ์ƒ์‚ฐ์„ฑ๊ณผ SIF๋Š” ๋น„์„ ํ˜• ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๊ฐ–๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ๋งŽ์€ ์„ ํ–‰ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์—์„œ ๋ฐœํ‘œํ•œ ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ SIF์™€ GPP๊ฐ€ ์„ ํ˜•์ ์ธ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ๊ณผ๋Š” ๋‹ค์†Œ ์ƒ๋ฐ˜๋œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ์ด๋‹ค. ๋‹ค์ธก ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๋ด„์ฒ  ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ์„ ์—ฐ์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€์ธกํ•˜๊ณ , ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์‹๋ฌผ ๊ณ„์ ˆ๊ณผ ๋น„๊ตํ‰๊ฐ€ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์œ„์„ฑ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ๊ฐœ์—ฝ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋Š” ํ•˜๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๋กœ ๋ฐ›๊ณ , ์„ฑ์ˆ™ ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋Š” ์ƒ๋ถ€ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ์‹œ๊ธฐ์™€ ๋น„์Šทํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ฆ‰, ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ ์‹œ์Šคํ…œ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ์‹ค์ธกํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ์œ„์„ฑ ์˜์ƒ์„ ํ™œ์šฉํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค๊ณผ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ผ ์ˆ˜๋„ ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์œ„์„ฑ ์˜์ƒ์„ ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๋ฐ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ, ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ •ํ™•ํ•œ ์‹์ƒ์˜ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์ , ์ƒ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ๋ฉ”์ปค๋‹ˆ์ฆ˜์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ๊ทผ์ ‘ ํ‘œ๋ฉด ์„ผ์‹ฑ์„ ํ™œ์šฉํ•œ ํ˜„์žฅ์—์„œ ๊ตฌ์ถ•ํ•œ ์ž๋ฃŒ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ๋” ๋งŽ์€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•œ๋‹ค.Abstract i Chapter 1. Introduction 2 1. Background 2 2. Purpose 5 Chapter 2. Monitoring SIF using a filter-based near surface remote sensing system 9 1. Introduction 9 2. Instrument desing and technical spefications of the filter-based smart surface sensing system (4S-SIF) 12 2.1. Ultra-narrow band pass filter 14 2.2. Calibration of 4S-SIF 15 2.3. Temperature and humidity response 16 2.4. Evaluate SIF quality from 4S-SIF in the field 17 3. Results 20 4. Discussion 23 Chapter 3. SIF is non-linearly related to canopy photosynthesis in a temperate evergreen needleleaf forest during fall transition 27 1. Introduction 27 2. Methods and Materials 31 2.1. Study site 31 2.2. Leaf-level fluorescence measurement 32 2.3. Canopy-level SIF and spectral reflectance measurement 34 2.4. SIF retrieval 37 2.5. Canopy-level photosynthesis estimates 38 2.6. Meteorological variables and APAR 39 2.7. Statistical analysis 40 3. Results 41 4. Discussion 48 4.1. Non-linear relationships between SIF and GPP 49 4.2. Role of f_esc in SIF-GPP relationship 53 4.3. Implications of non-linear SIF-GPP relationship in temperate ENF 54 5. Conclusion 57 6. Appendix 59 Chapter 4. Monitoring spring phenology of multi-layer canopy in a deciduous broadleaf forest: What signal do satellites actually see in space 65 1. Introduction 65 2. Materials and Methods 69 2.1. Study site 69 2.2. Multi-layer spectral reflectance and transmittance measurement 70 2.3. Phenometrics detection 72 2.4. In-situ multi-layer phenology 74 2.5. Satellite remote sensing data 75 2.6. Meteorological variables 75 3. Results 76 3.1. Seasonal to interannual variations of NDVI, 1-transmittance, and air temperature 76 3.2. Inter-annual variation of leaf-out and full-leaf dates 78 3.3. The relationships between dates calculated according tothreshold and in-situ multi-layer phenology 80 3.4. The relationship between multi-layer phenology, AGDD and NCD 81 4. Discussion 82 4.1. How do satellite-based leaf-out and full-leaf dates differ from in-situ multi-layer phenology 83 4.2. Are the 10 % and 90 % thresholds from satellite-basedNDVI always well matched with the leaf-out and full-leaf dates calculated by the curvature change rate 86 4.3. What are the implications of the difference between satellite-based and multi-layer phenology 87 4.4. Limitations and implications for future studies 89 5. Conclusion 91 6. Appendix 92 Chapter 5. Conclusion 114 Abstract in Korean 115๋ฐ•

    Implementaรงรฃo de modelos de espectroscopia hiperespectral e nanossatรฉlite na identificaรงรฃo de cultivares de vitis vinifera e suas variaรงรตes regionais

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    O Brasil รฉ destaque na produรงรฃo mundial de uvas e demonstra uma constante evoluรงรฃo ao longo de sua histรณrica, desde 1980, com o Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, no topo da lista de produtores. Diversas regiรตes produtoras de uvas e vinhos no Brasil tem organizado suas atividades no sentido de se tornarem reconhecidas como โ€œIndicaรงรตes de Procedรชnciaโ€ (IP), dando tipicidade e carรกter regional aos seus produtos. Esta caracterizaรงรฃo requer descriรงรตes dos impactos das condiรงรตes ambientais e do trabalho humano. A utilizaรงรฃo de dados adquiridos por sensoriamento remoto, incluindo dados proximais hiperespectrais e de satรฉlites, permitem classificar e caracterizar as variedades de uvas e suas respectivas unidades produtoras de diversas localidades, sob condiรงรตes climรกticas e antrรณpicas diferenciadas. Esta tese tem como principal objetivo desenvolver uma metodologia para aquisiรงรฃo de dados, treinamento de modelos de hiperespectrais por sensor proximal e imagens via nanossatรฉlite. A รกrea de estudo รฉ composta por oito vinhedos comerciais localizados no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Na primeira fase deste estudo, a unidade de anรกlise foi a folha isolada da videira em diferentes regiรตes. Posteriormente foi realizado o levantamento dos parรขmetros de clorofila, Teor de Sรณlidos Totais (TST) ou ยฐBrix da uva, espectros de reflectรขncia hiperespectral e imagens de nanossatรฉlite em parcelas de Cabernet Sauvignon em uma vinรญcola da Serra Gaรบcha. Os modelos Light Gradient Booster Machine (LGBM) e Random Forest (RF) obtiveram as melhores acurรกcias na discriminaรงรฃo espectral em regiรตes do ultravioleta (UV) e visรญvel (VIS). As estimativas apresentaram elevados Rยฒ com o modelo de regressรฃo RF. O รญndice de Gini teve maiores valores para comprimentos de onda no UV/VIS/NIR e o รญndice de vegetaรงรฃo Plant Senescence Reflectance Index (PSRI) teve melhor desempenho para prediรงรฃo dos parรขmetros de clorofila, e o Triangular Greenness Index (TGI)/Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) para o ยบBrix da uva, utilizando como dados a reflectรขncia hiperespectral e a reflectรขncia de superfรญcie. Desenvolvimentos futuros incluem o levantamento de dados com maior nรบmero de planta e variedades, auxiliando a compreender as assinaturas espectrais de cada variedade como subsรญdio para um melhor manejo da produรงรฃo.Brazil has had an increasing prominence in the production of grapes in the world and the country's production history since the 80's demonstrates this constant evolution. At the top of the list of producers is the State of Rio Grande do Sul. Several grape and wine producing regions in Brazil have organized their activities in order to become recognized as โ€œIndications of Originโ€ (IO), giving their products typicality and regional character. This characterization requires descriptions of environmental conditions and the impacts of these conditions and human work. The use of remote sensing data, including proximal hyperspectral and satellite data, allow us to classify and characterize grape varieties and their respective producing units from various locations, under different climatic and anthropic conditions. The main objective of this thesis is to develop a methodology for data acquisition, training of plant spectroscopy models with a hyperspectral proximal sensor and for nanosatellite imaging. . The study area consists of eight commercial vineyards found in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. In the first phase of this study, the unit of analysis was the leaf isolated from the vine in different regions. Subsequently, a survey of chlorophyll parameters, Total Solids Content (ยฐBx) of the grape, hyperspectral reflectance spectra and nanosatellite images were conducted in Cabernet Sauvignon plots in a Serra Gaรบcha winery. Machine learning algorithms were applied in the discrimination of vineyards by region and by variety, and in the estimation of the chlorophyll and Brix parameters of the grape. The Light Gradient Booster Machine (LGBM) and Random Forest (RF) models obtained the best accuracies in spectral discrimination in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible (VIS) regions. The estimates showed high Rยฒ with the RF regression model. The Gini index had higher values for UV/VIS/NIR wavelengths, and the Plant Senescence Reflectance Index (PSRI) had better performance for predicting chlorophyll parameters, and the Triangular Greenness Index (TGI)/Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the degree Brix, using as data the hyperspectral reflectance and the surface reflectance. Future developments include collecting data with a greater number of plants and varieties, helping to understand the spectral signatures of each variety as a subsidy for better production management
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