BioScript: programming safe chemistry on laboratories-on-a-chip

This paper introduces BioScript, a domain-specific language (DSL) for programmable biochemistry which executes on emerging microfluidic platforms. The goal of this research is to provide a simple, intuitive, and type-safe DSL that is accessible to life science practitioners. The novel feature of the language is its syntax, which aims to optimize human readability; the technical contributions of the paper include the BioScript type system and relevant portions of its compiler. The type system ensures that certain types of errors, specific to biochemistry, do not occur, including the interaction of chemicals that may be unsafe. The compiler includes novel optimizations that place biochemical operations to execute concurrently on a spatial 2D array platform on the granularity of a control flow graph, as opposed to individual basic blocks. Results are obtained using both a cycle-accurate microfluidic simulator and a software interface to a real-world platform

Design and Optimization Methods for Pin-Limited and Cyberphysical Digital Microfluidic Biochips

<p>Microfluidic biochips have now come of age, with applications to biomolecular recognition for high-throughput DNA sequencing, immunoassays, and point-of-care clinical diagnostics. In particular, digital microfluidic biochips, which use electrowetting-on-dielectric to manipulate discrete droplets (or "packets of biochemical payload") of picoliter volumes under clock control, are especially promising. The potential applications of biochips include real-time analysis for biochemical reagents, clinical diagnostics, flash chemistry, and on-chip DNA sequencing. The ease of reconfigurability and software-based control in digital microfluidics has motivated research on various aspects of automated chip design and optimization.</p><p>This thesis research is focused on facilitating advances in on-chip bioassays, enhancing the automated use of digital microfluidic biochips, and developing an "intelligent" microfluidic system that has the capability of making on-line re-synthesis while a bioassay is being executed. This thesis includes the concept of a "cyberphysical microfluidic biochip" based on the digital microfluidics hardware platform and on-chip sensing technique. In such a biochip, the control software, on-chip sensing, and the microfluidic operations are tightly coupled. The status of the droplets is dynamically monitored by on-chip sensors. If an error is detected, the control software performs dynamic re-synthesis procedure and error recovery.</p><p>In order to minimize the size and cost of the system, a hardware-assisted error-recovery method, which relies on an error dictionary for rapid error recovery, is also presented. The error-recovery procedure is controlled by a finite-state-machine implemented on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) instead of a software running on a separate computer. Each state of the FSM represents a possible error that may occur on the biochip; for each of these errors, the corresponding sequence of error-recovery signals is stored inside the memory of the FPGA before the bioassay is conducted. When an error occurs, the FSM transitions from one state to another, and the corresponding control signals are updated. Therefore, by using inexpensive FPGA, a portable cyberphysical system can be implemented.</p><p>In addition to errors in fluid-handling operations, bioassay outcomes can also be erroneous due the uncertainty in the completion time for fluidic operations. Due to the inherent randomness of biochemical reactions, the time required to complete each step of the bioassay is a random variable. To address this issue, a new "operation-interdependence-aware" synthesis algorithm is proposed in this thesis. The start and stop time of each operation are dynamically determined based on feedback from the on-chip sensors. Unlike previous synthesis algorithms that execute bioassays based on pre-determined start and end times of each operation, the proposed method facilitates "self-adaptive" bioassays on cyberphysical microfluidic biochips.</p><p>Another design problem addressed in this thesis is the development of a layout-design algorithm that can minimize the interference between devices on a biochip. A probabilistic model for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been developed; based on the model, the control software can make on-line decisions regarding the number of thermal cycles that must be performed during PCR. Therefore, PCR can be controlled more precisely using cyberphysical integration.</p><p>To reduce the fabrication cost of biochips, yet maintain application flexibility, the concept of a "general-purpose pin-limited biochip" is proposed. Using a graph model for pin-assignment, we develop the theoretical basis and a heuristic algorithm to generate optimized pin-assignment configurations. The associated scheduling algorithm for on-chip biochemistry synthesis has also been developed. Based on the theoretical framework, a complete design flow for pin-limited cyberphysical microfluidic biochips is presented.</p><p>In summary, this thesis research has led to an algorithmic infrastructure and optimization tools for cyberphysical system design and technology demonstrations. The results of this thesis research are expected to enable the hardware/software co-design of a new class of digital microfluidic biochips with tight coupling between microfluidics, sensors, and control software.</p>Dissertatio

An Optofluidic Lens Biochip and an x-ray Readable Blood Pressure Microsensor: Versatile Tools for in vitro and in vivo Diagnostics.

Three different microfabricated devices were presented for use in vivo and in vitro diagnostic biomedical applications: an optofluidic-lens biochip, a hand held digital imaging system and an x-ray readable blood pressure sensor for monitoring restenosis. An optofluidic biochip–termed the ‘Microfluidic-based Oil-Immersion Lens’ (mOIL) biochip were designed, fabricated and test for high-resolution imaging of various biological samples. The biochip consists of an array of high refractive index (n = 1.77) sapphire ball lenses sitting on top of an oil-filled microfluidic network of microchambers. The combination of the high optical quality lenses with the immersion oil results in a numerical aperture (NA) of 1.2 which is comparable to the high NA of oil immersion microscope objectives. The biochip can be used as an add-on-module to a stereoscope to improve the resolution from 10 microns down to 0.7 microns. It also has a scalable field of view (FOV) as the total FOV increases linearly with the number of lenses in the biochip (each lens has ~200 microns FOV). By combining the mOIL biochip with a CMOS sensor, a LED light source in 3D printed housing, a compact (40 grams, 4cmx4cmx4cm) high resolution (~0.4 microns) hand held imaging system was developed. The applicability of this system was demonstrated by counting red and white blood cells and imaging fluorescently labelled cells. In blood smear samples, blood cells, sickle cells, and malaria-infected cells were easily identified. To monitor restenosis, an x-ray readable implantable blood pressure sensor was developed. The sensor is based on the use of an x-ray absorbing liquid contained in a microchamber. The microchamber has a flexible membrane that is exposed to blood pressure. When the membrane deflects, the liquid moves into the microfluidic-gauge. The length of the microfluidic-gauge can be measured and consequently the applied pressure exerted on the diaphragm can be calculated. The prototype sensor has dimensions of 1x0.6x10mm and adequate resolution (19mmHg) to detect restenosis in coronary artery stents from a standard chest x-ray. Further improvements of our prototype will open up the possibility of measuring pressure drop in a coronary artery stent in a non-invasively manner.PhDMacromolecular Science and EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/111384/1/toning_1.pd

Breast Cancer Diagnosis Using a Microfluidic Multiplexed Immunohistochemistry Platform

BACKGROUND: Biomarkers play a key role in risk assessment, assessing treatment response, and detecting recurrence and the investigation of multiple biomarkers may also prove useful in accurate prediction and prognosis of cancers. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) has been a major diagnostic tool to identify therapeutic biomarkers and to subclassify breast cancer patients. However, there is no suitable IHC platform for multiplex assay toward personalized cancer therapy. Here, we report a microfluidics-based multiplexed IHC (MMIHC) platform that significantly improves IHC performance in reduction of time and tissue consumption, quantification, consistency, sensitivity, specificity and cost-effectiveness. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: By creating a simple and robust interface between the device and human breast tissue samples, we not only applied conventional thin-section tissues into on-chip without any additional modification process, but also attained perfect fluid control for various solutions, without any leakage, bubble formation, or cross-contamination. Four biomarkers, estrogen receptor (ER), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), progesterone receptor (PR) and Ki-67, were examined simultaneously on breast cancer cells and human breast cancer tissues. The MMIHC method improved immunoreaction, reducing time and reagent consumption. Moreover, it showed the availability of semi-quantitative analysis by comparing Western blot. Concordance study proved strong consensus between conventional whole-section analysis and MMIHC (n = 105, lowest Kendall's coefficient of concordance, 0.90). To demonstrate the suitability of MMIHC for scarce samples, it was also applied successfully to tissues from needle biopsies. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The microfluidic system, for the first time, was successfully applied to human clinical tissue samples and histopathological diagnosis was realized for breast cancers. Our results showing substantial agreement indicate that several cancer-related proteins can be simultaneously investigated on a single tumor section, giving clear advantages and technical advances over standard immunohistochemical method. This novel concept will enable histopathological diagnosis using numerous specific biomarkers at a time even for small-sized specimens, thus facilitating the individualization of cancer therapy

BACTERIA ANALYSIS BY USING A SUPERVISED MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHM BASED ON DROPLET MICROFLUIDICS

Sepsis is a major medical problem and massive resources have been invested in developing and evaluating alternative treatments. Statistics indicate that sepsis causes between one third and one half of all hospital deaths in the United States. Sepsis has a high impact on health care in the US, with direct sepsis costs in 2009 exceeding $15.4 billion. A research study found that a 1-hour delay in appropriate antimicrobial care resulted in a 7% - 10% rise in mortality. Several professional societies seek to reduce sepsis mortality by targeting the timely use of diagnostic tests and antimicrobial therapy. The diagnostic instruments available to clinicians to identify the suspected pathogen do not make a timely intervention possible. Up to 5 days of incubation are needed for blood cultures, the majority of bacteria being detected after 12–48 h. Therefore, fast and simple techniques are required for rapid bacterial cell detection and quantification. By using droplet microfluidics and a machine learning algorithm, the objective of this study was to propose a technology that analyzes images of bacterial cells by image processing and Support Vector Machines algorithm to classify droplets containing the bacteria. The accuracy of the proposed technology was 97.2 % for a trained SVM model and with the complete identification and classification of droplets

Magnetic components and microfluidics optimization on a Lab-on-a-chip platform

Tese de mestrado integrado, Engenharia Biomédica e Biofísica (Sinais e Imagens Médicas), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2017Desde 1934, quando Moldovan criou o primeiro instrumento que poderia ser descrito como um citómetro de fluxo, este equipamento tornou-se um importante componente em várias especialidades dentro do laboratório clínico para o diagnóstico, prognóstico e monitorização de um número incontável de doenças. Esta tecnologia biofísica suspende entidades biológicas num fluxo de fluido, sinalizando-as usando reconhecimento biomolecular, para depois as detetar através de um aparelho de detecção eletrónica. Com o crescimento das técnicas de fabricação de semicondutores e microfluídos, foram e continuam a ser feitas muitas tentativas de criar citómetros de fluxo do tipo Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC), o que certamente irá afastar os equipamentos usados hoje me dia nos laboratórios por equipamentos usados in situ de custo e tamanho reduzidos, portáteis e sem necessidade de pessoal especializado. Após uma revisão bibliográfica das técnicas e princípios de funcionamento dos equipamentos já existentes foi possível perceber que a utilização de partículas magnéticas (PM) pode ter várias vantagens quando comparadas com o uso convencional de deteção por fluorescência, removendo assim a necessidade de integrar e alinhar componentes ópticos, permitindo uma medição direta e a construção de um citómetro de fluxo LOC com preparação, separação e deteção de amostras totalmente magnético. No INESC-MN foi feito um protótipo que permite a deteção de um tipo de PMs em tempo real a velocidades da ordem de cm/s usando sensores magnetoresistivos integrados em canais microfluídicos mas a primeira demonstração desta técnica para aplicações de citómetro foi realizada através da detecção de células Kg1-a marcadas com PMs de 50 nm que passaram, através de um canal microfluídico, sobre 3 sensores magnetoresistivos demonstrando que, para amostras de elevada concentração, pode ter a mesma eficiência que um hemocitómetro, mas com menor erro. Tendo como ambição um dispositivo LOC capaz de contar várias entidades biológicas na mesma amostra, um módulo de contagem com vários canais paralelos é necessário. Nesse sentido, foi projetado um novo chip com 4 colunas separadas por 3 mm, cada uma com 7 sensores do tipo válvula de spin (SV) com uma área de deteção de 100x4 μm2 distanciados 150 μm uns dos outros. Os sensores são abordados individualmente por uma linha de corrente de alumínio de 300 nm e passivados com 300 nm de nitreto de silicio. Alinhados com as colunas de sensores, 4 canais de polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) com uma secção de 20 μm de altura e 100 μm de largura foram irreversivelmente colados ao chip por ultravioleta-ozono (UVO) criando o canal onde a amostra irá fluir. Para que as PMs sinalizem a sua passagem é necessário colocá-las sob um campo magnético forte o suficiente para induzir a sua magnetização e para que, consequentemente, as PMs emanem um campo marginal significativo. Aproveitando a insensibilidade das SVs às componentes perpendiculares ao seu plano (xy), aplica-se um campo magnético nesse sentido (z) para magnetizar as partículas. As PMs ao passarem sobre o sensor geraram um sinal bipolar devido ao campo marginal criado pela sua magnetização perpendicular. Como é apresentado na simulação do sinal, a amplitude do mesmo depende apenas da altura da partícula em relação ao sensor e da magnetização das mesmas, idealmente, uma saturação da magnetização das partículas e o máximo de proximidade aos sensores geraria a maior amplitude possível. O campo magnético perpendicular foi criado usando um magnete de neodímio posicionado sob a placa de circuito impresso (PCB), onde o chip do citómetro é colado e as ligações entre o chip e a PCB soldadas por ultrassons com fio de alumínio. Na abordagem usada em Loureiro et al., 2011, um magnete de 20 mm x 10 mm x 1 mm foi simplesmente colado sob a PCB, mas devido aos campos magnéticos serem sempre fechados as componentes x e y criam desvios nas curvas de transferência dos sensores deixando apenas 1 ou 2 sensores de uma coluna do chip operacionais. Numa abordagem seguinte foi usado um magnete 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm distanciado 2 cm abaixo da PCB, isto tornou as curvas de transferência dos sensores adequadas para medição, mas fez com que a componente z do campo magnético não fosse grande o suficiente para que as PMs emanassem um campo magnético suficientemente forte. Percebendo as falhas de cada uma das configurações anteriores, foram feitas simulações do campo magnético que iria influenciar o chip originado por magnetes de vários tamanhos a várias distancias para perceber qual conseguiria fornecer uma maior área em que as componentes x e y fossem menores que 10 Oe e em que a componente z fosse de pelo menos 1 kOe. Através das simulações foi concluído que o magnete de 20 mm x 10 mm x 1 mm o mais próximo possível do chip seria a melhor solução, mas que um alinhamento preciso seria necessário. Para esse fim, foi fabricado numa fresadora um sistema de alinhamento em PMMA. Para que o alinhamento fosse o correto foram feitos 4 furos de alinhamento no sistema de PMMA e na PCB e para reduzir a distancia ao máximo foi feita uma bolsa na PCB da mesma área que o chip deixando a distancia do magnete aos sensores de 1 mm (0.3 mm de PCB + 0.7 mm de substrato de silício). Com isto, o alinhamento em x foi conseguido, mas para alinhar em y foi criado um trilho no sistema de PMMA onde o magnete pudesse deslizar, controlando-o pela rotação de um parafuso com passo de 0.5 mm. Para colocar o magnete na posição ideal, foi medida consecutivamente a curva de transferência do 4º sensor de uma das colunas, num campo magnético de -141 Oe a 141 Oe, até que este tivesse um campo de acoplamento efectivo (Hf) de aproximadamente 0 Oe, o que significa que a curva de transferência estaria perfeitamente centrada em zero e criaria um sinal bipolar perfeito. Após o alinhamento e posicionamento do magnete, todos os sensores foram caracterizados e, nesses resultados, podemos ver perfeitamente o efeito das componentes x e y do magnete. Com o lado longo do magnete paralelo ao lado longo das SVs e alinhado de forma que o Hf fosse o mais próximo de 0 Oe no 4º sensor de uma coluna, percebemos que a componente x (lado longo) do campo magnético criado pelo magnete tem efeitos na sensibilidade dos sensores fazendo com que esta caia à medida que nos afastamos do centro do magnete. Enquanto que a componente y tem efeitos sobre o Hf dos sensores tornando-o mais positivo à medida que medimos a 3ª, 2ª e 1ª linha de sensores e tornando-o mais negativo quando medimos a 5ª, 6ª e 7ª linha. São também apresentadas simulações dos canais microfluídicos para perceber como a velocidade das partículas afeta o sinal e qual a velocidade máxima permitida para que placa de aquisição eletrónica seja capaz de o detetar. Com estas conclusões, um novo chip foi desenhado e fabricado. Neste novo chip a distância entre as colunas de SVs foi reduzida para apenas 1 mm, o que obrigou também à alteração dos canais microfluídicos, ao tamanho do chip e da estrutura de PDMS. Também são apresentadas simulações que mostram que se um segundo magnete, alinhado com o primeiro, for colocado sobre os canais microfluídicos poderá melhorar a magnetização e a homogeneidade do campo, o que permitirá que os 4 canais tenham a mesma sensibilidade e um desvio padrão de Hf menor. Todos os antecedentes teóricos, os métodos de microfabricação e técnicas de caracterização usados são apresentados e descritos.The diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring of diseases serves for the only purpose of preserving and improving life. Being this the greatest objective of the human kind, since ever that efforts have been made to better our ways to do that. One of those, a very important component in several specialties within the clinical laboratory is the flow cytometer, a biophysical technology which uses biomolecular recognition to sort and count biological entities by suspending them in a stream of fluid and detecting them through an electronic detection apparatus. The improvement of the semiconductor and microfluidic fabrication techniques have created the chance to bring the expensive, specialized and bulky equipment out of the laboratories and generate new machines able of having the same efficiency but with smaller price, size, allowing portability and removing the need for specialized personnel. This is the concept behind the next generation of in pointof- care apparatus, the La-on-a-Chip (LOC). At INESC-MN it is understood the potential that magnetic particles (MP) have in a LOC flow cytometer and as such a real-time detection of single magnetic particles magnetoresistive based cytometer was prototyped. Demonstration of this technique for cytometer applications was accomplished by indicating that for high concentration samples it can have the same efficiency as the hemocytometer method but with lesser error. This thesis has as objective the optimization of the magnetic and microfluidic components of a LOC to allow the parallelization of measurements and enabling the real-time measurement of different particles at the same time. For this purpose, a bibliographic review of the theoretical backgrounds, of the fabrication and characterization techniques, of the different detecting principles and of the already existing magnetoresistive counting modules was made to get a deeper understanding of the optimization possibilities. The present work describes the above-mentioned platform for dynamic detection of magnetic labels with a magnetoresistive based flow cytometer, where a permanent magnet is used to magnetize the labels enabling them to trigger the sensor. Several simulations of the magnetic fields created by the permanent magnet and the microfluidic channels were done and analyzed in order to characterize the MPs signal, understand which would be the best positioning of these components and which fluid velocities would be in the range of the electronic read-out capabilities. This study led to the fabrication of a micromachined polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) alignment system to correctly position the permanent magnet under the cytometer’s chip. This made the control over the magnet’s positioning more sensible and thus reducing the influence of its unwanted magnetic components on the chip. The approximation of the magnet to the chip enhanced the signal by optimizing the MPs magnetization and consequently the signal amplitude, the precise alignment corrected the sensors response by improving its sensitivity and removing them from saturation states. Through this new setup all the sensors in the chip became operational. Finally, using the several techniques of microfabrication also describe in this thesis, a new chip was designed and fabricated to improve even more the sensors sensitivity and consequently augment the number of the cytometer’s counting channels

Micro/nano devices for blood analysis

[Excerpt] The development of microdevices for blood analysis is an interdisciplinary subject that demandsan integration of several research fields such as biotechnology, medicine, chemistry, informatics, optics,electronics, mechanics, and micro/nanotechnologies.Over the last few decades, there has been a notably fast development in the miniaturization ofmechanical microdevices, later known as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), which combineelectrical and mechanical components at a microscale level. The integration of microflow and opticalcomponents in MEMS microdevices, as well as the development of micropumps and microvalves,have promoted the interest of several research fields dealing with fluid flow and transport phenomenahappening at microscale devices. [...

Mathematical Analysis of Copy Number Variation in a DNA Sample Using Digital PCR on a Nanofluidic Device

Copy Number Variations (CNVs) of regions of the human genome have been associated with multiple diseases. We present an algorithm which is mathematically sound and computationally efficient to accurately analyze CNV in a DNA sample utilizing a nanofluidic device, known as the digital array. This numerical algorithm is utilized to compute copy number variation and the associated statistical confidence interval and is based on results from probability theory and statistics. We also provide formulas which can be used as close approximations