Measurement of head-related transfer functions : A review

A head-related transfer function (HRTF) describes an acoustic transfer function between a point sound source in the free-field and a defined position in the listener's ear canal, and plays an essential role in creating immersive virtual acoustic environments (VAEs) reproduced over headphones or loudspeakers. HRTFs are highly individual, and depend on directions and distances (near-field HRTFs). However, the measurement of high-density HRTF datasets is usually time-consuming, especially for human subjects. Over the years, various novel measurement setups and methods have been proposed for the fast acquisition of individual HRTFs while maintaining high measurement accuracy. This review paper provides an overview of various HRTF measurement systems and some insights into trends in individual HRTF measurements

Efficient Algorithms for Immersive Audio Rendering Enhancement

Il rendering audio immersivo è il processo di creazione di un’esperienza sonora coinvolgente e realistica nello spazio 3D. Nei sistemi audio immersivi, le funzioni di trasferimento relative alla testa (head-related transfer functions, HRTFs) vengono utilizzate per la sintesi binaurale in cuffia poiché esprimono il modo in cui gli esseri umani localizzano una sorgente sonora. Possono essere introdotti algoritmi di interpolazione delle HRTF per ridurre il numero di punti di misura e per creare un movimento del suono affidabile. La riproduzione binaurale può essere eseguita anche dagli altoparlanti. Tuttavia, il coinvolgimento di due o più gli altoparlanti causa il problema del crosstalk. In questo caso, algoritmi di cancellazione del crosstalk (CTC) sono necessari per eliminare i segnali di interferenza indesiderati. In questa tesi, partendo da un'analisi comparativa di metodi di misura delle HRTF, viene proposto un sistema di rendering binaurale basato sull'interpolazione delle HRTF per applicazioni in tempo reale. Il metodo proposto mostra buone prestazioni rispetto a una tecnica di riferimento. L'algoritmo di interpolazione è anche applicato al rendering audio immersivo tramite altoparlanti, aggiungendo un algoritmo di cancellazione del crosstalk fisso, che considera l'ascoltatore in una posizione fissa. Inoltre, un sistema di cancellazione crosstalk adattivo, che include il tracciamento della testa dell'ascoltatore, è analizzato e implementato in tempo reale. Il CTC adattivo implementa una struttura in sottobande e risultati sperimentali dimostrano che un maggiore numero di bande migliora le prestazioni in termini di errore totale e tasso di convergenza. Il sistema di riproduzione e le caratteristiche dell'ambiente di ascolto possono influenzare le prestazioni a causa della loro risposta in frequenza non ideale. L'equalizzazione viene utilizzata per livellare le varie parti dello spettro di frequenze che compongono un segnale audio al fine di ottenere le caratteristiche sonore desiderate. L'equalizzazione può essere manuale, come nel caso dell'equalizzazione grafica, dove il guadagno di ogni banda di frequenza può essere modificato dall'utente, o automatica, la curva di equalizzazione è calcolata automaticamente dopo la misurazione della risposta impulsiva della stanza. L'equalizzazione della risposta ambientale può essere applicata anche ai sistemi multicanale, che utilizzano due o più altoparlanti e la zona di equalizzazione può essere ampliata misurando le risposte impulsive in diversi punti della zona di ascolto. In questa tesi, GEQ efficienti e un sistema adattativo di equalizzazione d'ambiente. In particolare, sono proposti e approfonditi tre equalizzatori grafici a basso costo computazionale e a fase lineare e quasi lineare. Gli esperimenti confermano l'efficacia degli equalizzatori proposti in termini di accuratezza, complessità computazionale e latenza. Successivamente, una struttura adattativa in sottobande è introdotta per lo sviluppo di un sistema di equalizzazione d'ambiente multicanale. I risultati sperimentali verificano l'efficienza dell'approccio in sottobande rispetto al caso a banda singola. Infine, viene presentata una rete crossover a fase lineare per sistemi multicanale, mostrando ottimi risultati in termini di risposta in ampiezza, bande di transizione, risposta polare e risposta in fase. I sistemi di controllo attivo del rumore (ANC) possono essere progettati per ridurre gli effetti dell'inquinamento acustico e possono essere utilizzati contemporaneamente a un sistema audio immersivo. L'ANC funziona creando un'onda sonora in opposizione di fase rispetto all'onda sonora in arrivo. Il livello sonoro complessivo viene così ridotto grazie all'interferenza distruttiva. Infine, questa tesi presenta un sistema ANC utilizzato per la riduzione del rumore. L’approccio proposto implementa una stima online del percorso secondario e si basa su filtri adattativi in sottobande applicati alla stima del percorso primario che mirano a migliorare le prestazioni dell’intero sistema. La struttura proposta garantisce un tasso di convergenza migliore rispetto all'algoritmo di riferimento.Immersive audio rendering is the process of creating an engaging and realistic sound experience in 3D space. In immersive audio systems, the head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) are used for binaural synthesis over headphones since they express how humans localize a sound source. HRTF interpolation algorithms can be introduced for reducing the number of measurement points and creating a reliable sound movement. Binaural reproduction can be also performed by loudspeakers. However, the involvement of two or more loudspeakers causes the problem of crosstalk. In this case, crosstalk cancellation (CTC) algorithms are needed to delete unwanted interference signals. In this thesis, starting from a comparative analysis of HRTF measurement techniques, a binaural rendering system based on HRTF interpolation is proposed and evaluated for real-time applications. The proposed method shows good performance in comparison with a reference technique. The interpolation algorithm is also applied for immersive audio rendering over loudspeakers, by adding a fixed crosstalk cancellation algorithm, which assumes that the listener is in a fixed position. In addition, an adaptive crosstalk cancellation system, which includes the tracking of the listener's head, is analyzed and a real-time implementation is presented. The adaptive CTC implements a subband structure and experimental results prove that a higher number of bands improves the performance in terms of total error and convergence rate. The reproduction system and the characteristics of the listening room may affect the performance due to their non-ideal frequency response. Audio equalization is used to adjust the balance of different audio frequencies in order to achieve desired sound characteristics. The equalization can be manual, such as in the case of graphic equalization, where the gain of each frequency band can be modified by the user, or automatic, where the equalization curve is automatically calculated after the room impulse response measurement. The room response equalization can be also applied to multichannel systems, which employ two or more loudspeakers, and the equalization zone can be enlarged by measuring the impulse responses in different points of the listening zone. In this thesis, efficient graphic equalizers (GEQs), and an adaptive room response equalization system are presented. In particular, three low-complexity linear- and quasi-linear-phase graphic equalizers are proposed and deeply examined. Experiments confirm the effectiveness of the proposed GEQs in terms of accuracy, computational complexity, and latency. Successively, a subband adaptive structure is introduced for the development of a multichannel and multiple positions room response equalizer. Experimental results verify the effectiveness of the subband approach in comparison with the single-band case. Finally, a linear-phase crossover network is presented for multichannel systems, showing great results in terms of magnitude flatness, cutoff rates, polar diagram, and phase response. Active noise control (ANC) systems can be designed to reduce the effects of noise pollution and can be used simultaneously with an immersive audio system. The ANC works by creating a sound wave that has an opposite phase with respect to the sound wave of the unwanted noise. The additional sound wave creates destructive interference, which reduces the overall sound level. Finally, this thesis presents an ANC system used for noise reduction. The proposed approach implements an online secondary path estimation and is based on cross-update adaptive filters applied to the primary path estimation that aim at improving the performance of the whole system. The proposed structure allows for a better convergence rate in comparison with a reference algorithm

Enhanced coding, clock recovery and detection for a magnetic credit card

Merged with duplicate record 10026.1/2299 on 03.04.2017 by CS (TIS)This thesis describes the background, investigation and construction of a system for storing data on the magnetic stripe of a standard three-inch plastic credit in: inch card. Investigation shows that the information storage limit within a 3.375 in by 0.11 in rectangle of the stripe is bounded to about 20 kBytes. Practical issues limit the data storage to around 300 Bytes with a low raw error rate: a four-fold density increase over the standard. Removal of the timing jitter (that is prob-' ably caused by the magnetic medium particle size) would increase the limit to 1500 Bytes with no other system changes. This is enough capacity for either a small digital passport photograph or a digitized signature: making it possible to remove printed versions from the surface of the card. To achieve even these modest gains has required the development of a new variable rate code that is more resilient to timing errors than other codes in its efficiency class. The tabulation of the effects of timing errors required the construction of a new code metric and self-recovering decoders. In addition, a new method of timing recovery, based on the signal 'snatches' has been invented to increase the rapidity with which a Bayesian decoder can track the changing velocity of a hand-swiped card. The timing recovery and Bayesian detector have been integrated into one computation (software) unit that is self-contained and can decode a general class of (d, k) constrained codes. Additionally, the unit has a signal truncation mechanism to alleviate some of the effects of non-linear distortion that are present when a magnetic card is read with a magneto-resistive magnetic sensor that has been driven beyond its bias magnetization. While the storage density is low and the total storage capacity is meagre in comparison with contemporary storage devices, the high density card may still have a niche role to play in society. Nevertheless, in the face of the Smart card its long term outlook is uncertain. However, several areas of coding and detection under short-duration extreme conditions have brought new decoding methods to light. The scope of these methods is not limited just to the credit card

HRTFs Measurement Based on Periodic Sequences Robust towards Nonlinearities in Automotive Audio

The head related transfer functions (HRTFs) represent the acoustic path transfer functions between sound sources in 3D space and the listener’s ear. They are used to create immersive audio scenarios or to subjectively evaluate sound systems according to a human-centric point of view. Cars are nowadays the most popular audio listening environment and the use of HRTFs in automotive audio has recently attracted the attention of researchers. In this context, the paper proposes a measurement method for HRTFs based on perfect or orthogonal periodic sequences. The proposed measurement method ensures robustness towards the nonlinearities that may affect the measurement system. The experimental results considering both an emulated scenario and real measurements in a controlled environment illustrate the effectiveness of the approach and compare the proposed method with other popular approaches

Sampling and Reconstruction of Spatial Fields using Mobile Sensors

Spatial sampling is traditionally studied in a static setting where static sensors scattered around space take measurements of the spatial field at their locations. In this paper we study the emerging paradigm of sampling and reconstructing spatial fields using sensors that move through space. We show that mobile sensing offers some unique advantages over static sensing in sensing time-invariant bandlimited spatial fields. Since a moving sensor encounters such a spatial field along its path as a time-domain signal, a time-domain anti-aliasing filter can be employed prior to sampling the signal received at the sensor. Such a filtering procedure, when used by a configuration of sensors moving at constant speeds along equispaced parallel lines, leads to a complete suppression of spatial aliasing in the direction of motion of the sensors. We analytically quantify the advantage of using such a sampling scheme over a static sampling scheme by computing the reduction in sampling noise due to the filter. We also analyze the effects of non-uniform sensor speeds on the reconstruction accuracy. Using simulation examples we demonstrate the advantages of mobile sampling over static sampling in practical problems. We extend our analysis to sampling and reconstruction schemes for monitoring time-varying bandlimited fields using mobile sensors. We demonstrate that in some situations we require a lower density of sensors when using a mobile sensing scheme instead of the conventional static sensing scheme. The exact advantage is quantified for a problem of sampling and reconstructing an audio field.Comment: Submitted to IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing May 2012; revised Oct 201

Beiträge zu breitbandigen Freisprechsystemen und ihrer Evaluation

This work deals with the advancement of wideband hands-free systems (HFS’s) for mono- and stereophonic cases of application. Furthermore, innovative contributions to the corr. field of quality evaluation are made. The proposed HFS approaches are based on frequency-domain adaptive filtering for system identification, making use of Kalman theory and state-space modeling. Functional enhancement modules are developed in this work, which improve one or more of key quality aspects, aiming at not to harm others. In so doing, these modules can be combined in a flexible way, dependent on the needs at hand. The enhanced monophonic HFS is evaluated according to automotive ITU-T recommendations, to prove its customized efficacy. Furthermore, a novel methodology and techn. framework are introduced in this work to improve the prototyping and evaluation process of automotive HF and in-car-communication (ICC) systems. The monophonic HFS in several configurations hereby acts as device under test (DUT) and is thoroughly investigated, which will show the DUT’s satisfying performance, as well as the advantages of the proposed development process. As current methods for the evaluation of HFS’s in dynamic conditions oftentimes still lack flexibility, reproducibility, and accuracy, this work introduces “Car in a Box” (CiaB) as a novel, improved system for this demanding task. It is able to enhance the development process by performing high-resolution system identification of dynamic electro-acoustical systems. The extracted dyn. impulse response trajectories are then applicable to arbitrary input signals in a synthesis operation. A realistic dynamic automotive auralization of a car cabin interior is available for HFS evaluation. It is shown that this system improves evaluation flexibility at guaranteed reproducibility. In addition, the accuracy of evaluation methods can be increased by having access to exact, realistic imp. resp. trajectories acting as a so-called “ground truth” reference. If CiaB is included into an automotive evaluation setup, there is no need for an acoustical car interior prototype to be present at this stage of development. Hency, CiaB may ease the HFS development process. Dynamic acoustic replicas may be provided including an arbitrary number of acoustic car cabin interiors for multiple developers simultaneously. With CiaB, speech enh. system developers therefore have an evaluation environment at hand, which can adequately replace the real environment.Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Weiterentwicklung breitbandiger Freisprechsysteme für mono-/stereophone Anwendungsfälle und liefert innovative Beiträge zu deren Qualitätsmessung. Die vorgestellten Verfahren basieren auf im Frequenzbereich adaptierenden Algorithmen zur Systemidentifikation gemäß Kalman-Theorie in einer Zustandsraumdarstellung. Es werden funktionale Erweiterungsmodule dahingehend entwickelt, dass mindestens eine Qualitätsanforderung verbessert wird, ohne andere eklatant zu verletzen. Diese nach Anforderung flexibel kombinierbaren algorithmischen Erweiterungen werden gemäß Empfehlungen der ITU-T (Rec. P.1110/P.1130) in vorwiegend automotiven Testszenarien getestet und somit deren zielgerichtete Wirksamkeit bestätigt. Es wird eine Methodensammlung und ein technisches System zur verbesserten Prototypentwicklung/Evaluation von automotiven Freisprech- und Innenraumkommunikationssystemen vorgestellt und beispielhaft mit dem monophonen Freisprechsystem in diversen Ausbaustufen zur Anwendung gebracht. Daraus entstehende Vorteile im Entwicklungs- und Testprozess von Sprachverbesserungssystem werden dargelegt und messtechnisch verifiziert. Bestehende Messverfahren zum Verhalten von Freisprechsystemen in zeitvarianten Umgebungen zeigten bisher oft nur ein unzureichendes Maß an Flexibilität, Reproduzierbarkeit und Genauigkeit. Daher wird hier das „Car in a Box“-Verfahren (CiaB) entwickelt und vorgestellt, mit dem zeitvariante elektro-akustische Systeme technisch identifiziert werden können. So gewonnene dynamische Impulsantworten können im Labor in einer Syntheseoperation auf beliebige Eingangsignale angewandt werden, um realistische Testsignale unter dyn. Bedingungen zu erzeugen. Bei diesem Vorgehen wird ein hohes Maß an Flexibilität bei garantierter Reproduzierbarkeit erlangt. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Genauigkeit von darauf basierenden Evaluationsverfahren zudem gesteigert werden kann, da mit dem Vorliegen von exakten, realen Impulsantworten zu jedem Zeitpunkt der Messung eine sogenannte „ground truth“ als Referenz zur Verfügung steht. Bei der Einbindung von CiaB in einen Messaufbau für automotive Freisprechsysteme ist es bedeutsam, dass zu diesem Zeitpunkt das eigentliche Fahrzeug nicht mehr benötigt wird. Es wird gezeigt, dass eine dyn. Fahrzeugakustikumgebung, wie sie im Entwicklungsprozess von automotiven Sprachverbesserungsalgorithmen benötigt wird, in beliebiger Anzahl vollständig und mind. gleichwertig durch CiaB ersetzt werden kann

Theory and Design of Spatial Active Noise Control Systems

The concept of spatial active noise control is to use a number of loudspeakers to generate anti-noise sound waves, which would cancel the undesired acoustic noise over a spatial region. The acoustic noise hazards that exist in a variety of situations provide many potential applications for spatial ANC. However, using existing ANC techniques, it is difficult to achieve satisfying noise reduction for a spatial area, especially using a practical hardware setup. Therefore, this thesis explores various aspects of spatial ANC, and seeks to develop algorithms and techniques to promote the performance and feasibility of spatial ANC in real-life applications. We use the spherical harmonic analysis technique as the basis for our research in this work. This technique provides an accurate representation of the spatial noise field, and enables in-depth analysis of the characteristics of the noise field. Incorporating this technique into the design of spatial ANC systems, we developed a series of algorithms and methods that optimizes the spatial ANC systems, towards both improving noise reduction performance and reducing system complexity. Several contributions of this work are: (i) design of compact planar microphone array structures capable of recording 3D spatial sound fields, so that the noise field can be monitored with minimum physical intrusion to the quiet zone, (ii) derivation of a Direct-to-Reverberant Energy Ratio (DRR) estimation algorithm which can be used for evaluating reverberant characteristics of a noisy environment, (iii) propose a few methods to estimate and optimize spatial noise reduction of an ANC system, including a new metric for measuring spatial noise energy level, and (iv) design of an adaptive spatial ANC algorithm incorporating the spherical harmonic analysis technique. The combination of these contributions enables the design of compact, high performing spatial ANC systems for various applications

Proceedings of the Second International Mobile Satellite Conference (IMSC 1990)

Presented here are the proceedings of the Second International Mobile Satellite Conference (IMSC), held June 17-20, 1990 in Ottawa, Canada. Topics covered include future mobile satellite communications concepts, aeronautical applications, modulation and coding, propagation and experimental systems, mobile terminal equipment, network architecture and control, regulatory and policy considerations, vehicle antennas, and speech compression

Speech enhancement algorithms for audiological applications

Texto en inglés y resumen en inglés y españolPremio Extraordinario de Doctorado de la UAH en el año académico 2013-2014La mejora de la calidad de la voz es un problema que, aunque ha sido abordado durante muchos años, aún sigue abierto. El creciente auge de aplicaciones tales como los sistemas manos libres o de reconocimiento de voz automático y las cada vez mayores exigencias de las personas con pérdidas auditivas han dado un impulso definitivo a este área de investigación. Esta tesis doctoral se centra en la mejora de la calidad de la voz en aplicaciones audiológicas. La mayoría del trabajo de investigación desarrollado en esta tesis está dirigido a la mejora de la inteligibilidad de la voz en audífonos digitales, teniendo en cuenta las limitaciones de este tipo de dispositivos. La combinación de técnicas de separación de fuentes y filtrado espacial con técnicas de aprendizaje automático y computación evolutiva ha originado novedosos e interesantes algoritmos que son incluidos en esta tesis. La tesis esta dividida en dos grandes bloques. El primer bloque contiene un estudio preliminar del problema y una exhaustiva revisión del estudio del arte sobre algoritmos de mejora de la calidad de la voz, que sirve para definir los objetivos de esta tesis. El segundo bloque contiene la descripción del trabajo de investigación realizado para cumplir los objetivos de la tesis, así como los experimentos y resultados obtenidos. En primer lugar, el problema de mejora de la calidad de la voz es descrito formalmente en el dominio tiempo-frecuencia. Los principales requerimientos y restricciones de los audífonos digitales son definidas. Tras describir el problema, una amplia revisión del estudio del arte ha sido elaborada. La revisión incluye algoritmos de mejora de la calidad de la voz mono-canal y multi-canal, considerando técnicas de reducción de ruido y técnicas de separación de fuentes. Además, la aplicación de estos algoritmos en audífonos digitales es evaluada. El primer problema abordado en la tesis es la separación de fuentes sonoras en mezclas infra-determinadas en el dominio tiempo-frecuencia, sin considerar ningún tipo de restricción computacional. El rendimiento del famoso algoritmo DUET, que consigue separar fuentes de voz con solo dos mezclas, ha sido evaluado en diversos escenarios, incluyendo mezclas lineales y binaurales no reverberantes, mezclas reverberantes, y mezclas de voz con otro tipo de fuentes tales como ruido y música. El estudio revela la falta de robustez del algoritmo DUET, cuyo rendimiento se ve seriamente disminuido en mezclas reverberantes, mezclas binaurales, y mezclas de voz con música y ruido. Con el objetivo de mejorar el rendimiento en estos casos, se presenta un novedoso algoritmo de separación de fuentes que combina la técnica de clustering mean shift con la base del algoritmo DUET. La etapa de clustering del algoritmo DUET, que esta basada en un histograma ponderado, es reemplazada por una modificación del algoritmo mean shift, introduciendo el uso de un kernel Gaussiano ponderado. El análisis de los resultados obtenidos muestran una clara mejora obtenida por el algoritmo propuesto en relación con el algoritmo DUET original y una modificación que usa k-means. Además, el algoritmo propuesto ha sido extendido para usar un array de micrófonos de cualquier tamaño y geometría. A continuación se ha abordado el problema de la enumeración de fuentes de voz, que esta relacionado con el problema de separación de fuentes. Se ha propuesto un novedoso algoritmo basado en un criterio de teoría de la información y en la estimación de los retardos relativos causados por las fuentes entre un par de micrófonos. El algoritmo ha obtenido excelente resultados y muestra robustez en la enumeración de mezclas no reverberantes de hasta 5 fuentes de voz. Además se demuestra la potencia del algoritmo para la enumeración de fuentes en mezclas reverberantes. El resto de la tesis esta centrada en audífonos digitales. El primer problema tratado es el de la mejora de la inteligibilidad de la voz en audífonos monoaurales. En primer lugar, se realiza un estudio de los recursos computacionales disponibles en audífonos digitales de ultima generación. Los resultados de este estudio se han utilizado para limitar el coste computacional de los algoritmos de mejora de la calidad de la voz para audífonos propuestos en esta tesis. Para resolver este primer problema se propone un algoritmo mono-canal de mejora de la calidad de la voz de bajo coste computacional. El objetivo es la estimación de una mascara tiempo-frecuencia continua para obtener el mayor parámetro PESQ de salida. El algoritmo combina una versión generalizada del estimador de mínimos cuadrados con un algoritmo de selección de características a medida, utilizando un novedoso conjunto de características. El algoritmo ha obtenido resultados excelentes incluso con baja relación señal a ruido. El siguiente problema abordado es el diseño de algoritmos de mejora de la calidad de la voz para audífonos binaurales comunicados de forma inalámbrica. Estos sistemas tienen un problema adicional, y es que la conexión inalámbrica aumenta el consumo de potencia. El objetivo en esta tesis es diseñar algoritmos de mejora de la calidad de la voz de bajo coste computacional que incrementen la eficiencia energética en audífonos binaurales comunicados de forma inalámbrica. Se han propuesto dos soluciones. La primera es un algoritmo de extremado bajo coste computacional que maximiza el parámetro WDO y esta basado en la estimación de una mascara binaria mediante un discriminante cuadrático que utiliza los valores ILD e ITD de cada punto tiempo-frecuencia para clasificarlo entre voz o ruido. El segundo algoritmo propuesto, también de bajo coste, utiliza además la información de puntos tiempo-frecuencia vecinos para estimar la IBM mediante una versión generalizada del LS-LDA. Además, se propone utilizar un MSE ponderado para estimar la IBM y maximizar el parámetro WDO al mismo tiempo. En ambos algoritmos se propone un esquema de transmisión eficiente energéticamente, que se basa en cuantificar los valores de amplitud y fase de cada banda de frecuencia con un numero distinto de bits. La distribución de bits entre frecuencias se optimiza mediante técnicas de computación evolutivas. El ultimo trabajo incluido en esta tesis trata del diseño de filtros espaciales para audífonos personalizados a una persona determinada. Los coeficientes del filtro pueden adaptarse a una persona siempre que se conozca su HRTF. Desafortunadamente, esta información no esta disponible cuando un paciente visita el audiólogo, lo que causa perdidas de ganancia y distorsiones. Con este problema en mente, se han propuesto tres métodos para diseñar filtros espaciales que maximicen la ganancia y minimicen las distorsiones medias para un conjunto de HRTFs de diseño