A review of community electrical energy systems

This paper is aimed at new entrants into the field of electrical community energy. It reviews some of the work that is underway into community electrical energy projects. This review includes a summary of key issues and components which need consideration including some or all of the following; demand side management, energy storage (including vehicle to grid) and renewable generation. The paper looks further into the energy management schemes of these projects and summarises previously published methodology in the area

Modeling residential electricity consumption from public demographic data for sustainable cities

Demographic factors, statistical information, and technological innovation are prominent factors shaping energy transitions in the residential sector. Explaining these energy transitions re-quires combining insights from the disciplines investigating these factors. The existing literature is not consistent in identifying these factors, nor in proposing how they can be combined. In this paper, three contributions are made by combining the key demographic factors of households to estimate household energy consumption. Firstly, a mathematical formula is developed by considering the demographic determinants that influence energy consumption, such as the number of persons per household, median age, occupancy rate, households with children, and number of bedrooms per household. Secondly, a geographical position algorithm is proposed to identify the geographical locations of households. Thirdly, the derived formula is validated by collecting demographic factors of five statistical regions from local government databases, and then compared with the electricity consumption benchmarks provided by the energy regulators. The practical feasibility of the method is demonstrated by comparing the estimated energy consumption values with the electricity consumption benchmarks provided by energy regulators. The comparison results indicate that the error between the benchmark and estimated values for the five different regions is less than 8% (7.37%), proving the efficacy of this method in energy consumption estimation processes

Demand Curve Modeling for the Utility of the Future

Electricity systems are undergoing significant changes. Demands are shifting in magnitude and temporal distribution due to developing policies and technologies such as electric vehicles, heat pumps, embedded generation and energy storage, while an increasingly renewable supply is intermittent and less flexible. As such, there is currently great uncertainty in the industry and future business pathways may vary significantly from the current paradigm. This research focused on developing a set of models which can be used by utility companies to leverage their smart meter data and gain insights into possible future impacts and opportunities. The thesis presents a series of novel models, developed and implemented with data provided from a utility in Southern Ontario. First, a regression model was developed to leverage the full value of utility smart meter data by disaggregating residential and commercial sector demands into base, heating and cooling end uses. The use of a variable temperature changepoint only marginally improved prediction accuracy, but significantly shifted disaggregation results, particularly at hourly resolution. This model was also applied for weather normalization, assessment of technology change and projection under different climate scenarios. A second model used this and additional data from literature to project long term utility level average and peak seasonal load curves. A dynamic interface with parameterized controls allowed real-time visualization of technology and policy impacts on the demand curve. A set of eight literature-based scenarios were also projected to demonstrate the extreme range of impacts predicted by different literature. These led to the conclusion that unmanaged technology penetration can lead to significant challenges such as increased peaks, large ramp rates and lower utilization. An analysis was then performed at finer geographic resolution, investigating impacts on representative distribution system transformers. First, the current variation in local technology penetration was examined, showing a significantly skewed distribution with many transformers having up to ten times the average rates. Clustering was then used to identify a set of eight diverse, representative transformer load profiles. Future scenarios were modeled, demonstrating that the impacts of technology and optimal mitigation techniques vary significantly between regions of the distribution system. Finally, the dynamic utility load curve model was also updated to project demands for the representative transformer groups identified. This allows users to simultaneously assess local impacts and mitigation strategies, as well as aggregate effects on the overall system demands. Together these works combine to provide a valuable toolset and significant insight into potential system impacts

End-of-life management of solid oxide fuel cells

This thesis reports on research undertaken to investigate the end-of-life management of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), through the definition of a framework and the development of a multicriteria evaluation methodology which together support comparison of alternative end-of-life scenarios. The primary objective of this research is to develop an understanding of the challenges and opportunities arising during the end-of-life phase of the technology, such that any conflicts with end-of-life requirements might be addressed and opportunities for optimising the end-of-life phase fully exploited. The research contributions can be considered in four principal parts. The first part comprises a review of SOFC technology and its place in future sustainable energy scenarios, alongside a review of a growing body of legislation which embodies concepts such as Extended Producer Responsibility and Integrated Product Policy. When considered in the context of the life cycle assessment literature, which clearly points to a lack of knowledge regarding the end-of-life phase of the SOFC life cycle, this review concludes that the requirement for effective end-of life management of SOFC products is an essential consideration prior to the widespread adoption of commercial products. The second part of the research defines a framework for end-of-life management of SOFCs, which supports clarification of the challenges presented by the SOFC stack waste stream, as well as identifying a systematic approach for addressing these challenges through the development of alternative end-of-life management scenarios. The framework identifies a need to evaluate the effectiveness of these end-of-life scenarios according to three performance criteria: legislative compliance; environmental impact; and economic impact. The third part of the research is concerned with the development of a multi-criteria evaluation methodology, which combines conventional evaluation methods such as life cycle assessment and cost-benefit analysis, with a novel risk assessment tool for evaluating compliance with current and future legislation. A decision support tool builds on existing multi-criteria decision making methods to provide a comparative performance indicator for identification of an end of-life scenario demonstrating low risk of non-compliance with future legislation; low environmental impact; and a low cost-benefit ratio. Finally, the validity of the framework for end-of-life management is tested through the completion of two case studies. These case studies demonstrate the flexibility of the framework in supporting a reactive end-of-life management approach, whereby end-of-life management is constrained by characteristics of the product design, and a proactive approach, whereby the impact of design modification on the end-of-life phase is explored. In summary, the research clearly highlights the significance of the end-of-life stage of the SOFC life cycle. On the one hand, failure to manage end-of-life products effectively risks undermining the environmental credentials of the technology and is likely to lead to the loss of a high-value, resource-rich material stream. On the other hand, the early consideration of aspects identified in the research, especially while opportunities remain to influence final product design, represents a real opportunity for optimising the end-of-life management of SOFC products in such a way as to fully realise their potential as a clean and efficient power generation solution for the future

Profiling and disaggregation of electricity demands measured in MV distribution networks

Despite the extensive deployment of smart-meters (SMs) at the low-voltage (LV) level, which are either fully operational or will be in the near future, distribution network operators (DNOs) are still relying on a limited number of permanently installed monitoring devices at primary and secondary medium-voltage (MV) substations, for purposes of network operation and control, as well as to inform and facilitate trading interactions between generators, distributors and suppliers. Accordingly, improved and sufficiently developed models for the analysis of aggregate demands at the MV-level are required for the correct assessment of load variability, composition and time-dependent evolution, necessary for: addressing issues of robustness, security and reliability; accomplishing higher penetration levels from renewable/distributed generation; implementing demand-side-management (DSM) schemes and incorporating new technologies; decreasing environmental and economic costs and aiding towards the realisation of automated and proactive ''smart-grid'' networks. The analysis of MV-demand measurements provides an independent source of information that can capture network characteristics that do not manifest in the data collected at the LV-level, or when such data is restricted or altogether unavailable. This information describes the supply/demand interactions at the mid-level between high-voltage (HV) transmission and LV end-user consumption and opens possibilities for validation of existing bottom-up aggregation approaches, while addressing issues of reliance on survey-based data for technical and economic power system studies. This thesis presents improved and novel methodologies for the analysis of aggregate demands, measured at MV-substations, aimed at more accurate and detailed load profiling, temporal decomposition and identification of the drivers of demand variability, classification of grid-supply- points (GSPs) according to consumption patterns, disaggregation with respect to customer-classes and load-types and load forecasting. The developed models are based on a number of traditional and modern analytical and statistical techniques, including: data mining, correlational and regression analysis, Fourier analysis, clustering and pattern recognition, etc. The approaches are demonstrated on demand datasets from UK and European based DNOs, thus providing specific information for the demand characteristics, the dependencies to external parameters and to socio-behavioural factors and the most likely load composition at the corresponding geographical locations, while the approaches are also intendent to be easily adaptable for studies at equivalent voltage and demand aggregation levels

Circular economy and office fit-out: an analysis for office fit-out processes based on material flows

The built environment is the most resource intensive sector of the economy, accounting for over a half of extracted materials and around one third of total waste generated. Within the built environment the most recurrent replacements of building materials and components take place during fit-out, which is the process of installing interior fittings, fixtures and finishes. These materials and components are more frequently replaced in non-domestic buildings, so non-domestic building fit-outs are responsible for recurrent consumption of materials and generation of waste. However, these processes tend to go unnoticed and unmeasured in the research about sustainable buildings. The present work aims to study this research gap and to analyse the potential for fit-outs to become more sustainable. The approach of this project ties in closely to the concept of circular economy, where materials are kept at their most useful state for as long as possible. This work analysed fit-out processes within UCL Estates and London through mixed research methods, including quantitative material flow analyses and the qualitative analysis of interviews. In total, 31 supply-chain stakeholders related to the fit-out industry were contacted and five fit-out case studies as well as two Waste Contractor case studies were considered. The structure of the fit-out supply chain was mapped out and the roles and interactions of the relevant stakeholders were analysed. Key materials and components installed and removed at fit-outs projects were defined while waste streams generated were measured, and their paths and final destinations were traced. A socio-technical analysis was developed for office and higher education institution building fit-outs and used to recognise key incentives and mechanisms that encourage higher rates of reuse, remanufacture and closed-loop recycling, from the design stage of building fit-outs and products to the treatment of wastes. It was concluded that the fit-out supply-chain generally showed a linear tendency in terms of both decisions and material flows, and a “reuse third party” in the supply chain showed to facilitate salvaging building components otherwise treated as waste. The rates of replacement for building products were generally shorter than their lifespans and the main barriers to potential reuse were both the lack of size standardisation and the lack of modular installation. Material flow analyses conducted for fit-out case studies showed that most waste streams were downcycled into products or uses that require inferior material quality and little waste was closed-loop recycled. Mixed waste was the highest-mass waste stream generated, followed by plasterboard and wood

An exploratory study of factors delaying the completion of electrification projects in KwaZulu-Natal Operating Unit (KZN-OU)

Masters Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.Electrification of a community is usually a big project for the good welfare of the citizens and economic development in South Africa. Most of the electrification projects undertaken in recent years in South Africa are delayed well beyond the expected time for completion and also required additional budget. The delays have substantial implications from an economic and political point of view. Delays of projects could be minimized only when their causes are identified and recognized. The aim of this qualitative study is to explore the challenges faced by projects managers and coordinators in completing electrification projects at Eskom electrification department and to ascertain the strategies which may be adopted to reduce delays in completion of electrification projects at Eskom electrification department KwaZulu-Nataloperating unit The study used a qualitative research methodology. Using a non-probability samling technigue, ten project managers and coordinators were purposively selected and interviewed to get their view of factors contributing to the delays in the completion of electrification projects in KwaZulu-Natal. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings indicated five strategies that could be adopted by Eskom to reduce delays in rural electrification. These include: clear separation of tasks and activities into phases, setting realistic targets, working together/teamwork, integration of departmental goals, and proper alignment of Eskom processes and adequacy of resources. Furthermore, it was recommended that Eskom should prioritize projects according to size, cost and importance; there should be a fair allocation of work to avoid overloading of contractors; a well-planned strategy which emphasizes on the accuracy of estimation of project cost and adequate resources; and penalty to incompetent contractors

Comprehensive approach to housing legislation: with reference to housing in Libya

Demographic pressures have led to a remarkable expansion and physical growth of most cities of developing countries, and Libya is one of them. The tension created by the need to meet pressing housing demand whilst also accommodating wider functional, social and spiritual needs is one which current Libyan planning and building legislation has yet to resolve. The motivation behind this research emerges from observing the consequence of modern Libyan public housing and its failure to embrace and transform the cultural values and people's needs in their specific context.The study aims to build a body of knowledge which will lead to the reform of Libyan housing legislation. New legislation is needed to deal with the everyday needs of people in a social and climatic sense as well as natural for the future development and transformation of the society.The study focus is on planning and building legislation and its impact on the housing production from the neighbourhood layouts to the design of the house itself, in addition to examining the location of the housing projects from the point of view of their integration and segregation with the whole of Tripoli city.This research therefore adopted a broad methodology to achieve the aims and goals of producing legislation. The nature of the topic is such that the methodology that was suggested to deal with the problems comes from different approaches and has been selected to gain as much feedback from the different theories as is possible.The research method adopted started from familiarising the reader with the context of Libya and estates of housing and legislation followed by two parts: the deductive part which consists of two sections: A - general theories which come from housing, legislation and B - specific theories, which look at space syntax, sustainability and human needs.The second approach of the research method is the inductive (the empirical) gaining knowledge and experience and insight about legislation from knowing practically all the problems that come from the case studies, the questionnaire and the interviews and then followed by the findings and application.In the research findings, the results of Part One and the deductive part are merged with the inductive part to produce a framework that can help the legislators in terms of how to formulate comprehensive housing legislation. This is followed by application of the framework in the case studies, to illustrate the practical application of some research findings to public housing. In the conclusion, the problem is established and further research areas are suggested supporting the framework within the Libyan context. The outcome of the research is expected to help designers, planners, and authorities to be more aware of the needs and the criteria for a suitable housing legislation

Proposta de um modelo para estimar a aceitação de medidores inteligentes residenciais de energia elétrica na região de Joinville – SC

TCC(graduação) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Centro Tecnológico. Engenharia de Produção Mecânica.A crescente necessidade do consumo racional da eletricidade, bem como uma gestão mais inteligente, tecnológica e sustentável da produção, distribuição e consumo, são motivos pelos quais vários países do mundo estão implementando redes inteligentes (smart grids) e, consequentemente, medidores inteligentes. No entanto, apesar dos benefícios associados ao uso desse dispositivo, ainda há uma consciência limitada do consumidor a respeito dele, o que gera uma barreira no processo de aceitação e implantação dessa tecnologia. A partir da falta de estudos sobre a aceitação de medidores inteligentes residenciais no Brasil e a necessidade da atualização do sistema elétrico, este estudo busca preencher esta lacuna tanto na literatura quanto na prática das empresas do setor. Diante disso, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo mensurar o efeito dos fatores para aceitação de medidores inteligentes residenciais de energia na região de Joinville – Santa Catarina. Dessa forma, foi elaborado um modelo de estimação baseado na Teoria Unificada e Estendida de Aceitação e Uso de Tecnologia (Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology – UTAUT2) de modo a avaliar os fatores que influenciam a aceitação e intenção de uso de medidores inteligentes residenciais de energia dos consumidores. Os dados necessários para estimar o modelo proposto foram obtidos por meio de um instrumento de pesquisa (questionário online), resultando numa amostra de 136 respondentes da população alvo do estudo. A partir desse levantamento, foi efetuado um bootstrap de 5.000 diferentes amostras e o modelo foi estimado por meio de modelagem de equações estruturais, mais precisamente o modelo PLS-SEM (Partial Least Squares- Structural Equation Modeling). O modelo estimado indica que os constructos Performance Expectancy (Expectativa de Desempenho), Hedonic Motivation (Motivação Hedonista) e Social Influence são os principais fatores que contribuem significativamente para Intention to Use (Intenção de Uso) do medidor inteligente de energia pela população-alvo. Em contrapartida, os constructos Effort Expectancy (Expectativa de Esforço), Environmental Awareness (Consciência Ambiental), Violation of Privacy (Violação de Privacidade) não se mostraram significativos para explicar a Intention to Use (Intenção de Uso) do medidor intelingente. Já o constructo Associated Costs (Custos Associados) não foi validado por não atingir resultados estatisticamente satisfatórios de confiabilidade, sendo removido do modelo estimado. Concomitantemente, foi realizada uma comparação entre os coeficientes (β) das relações entre os construtos obtidos neste estudo com os coeficientes das principais obras da literatura de modo a enriquecer a discussão dos resultados e propor estratégias para fomentar a aceitação dos medidores inteligentes residenciais de energia na região de Joinville – SC. Por fim, este trabalho contribui para a discussão mundial sobre a aceitação dos medidores inteligentes residenciais ao trazer resultados estimados em uma amostra de um país ainda sem pesquisas semelhantes. Os resultados ainda fornecem subsídios para que se possa aprimorar os processos de implementação de medidores inteligentes de energia a fim de potencializar a aceitação entre os consumidores e, por consequência, avançar em direção à evolução do sistema elétrico atual para as smart grids no Brasil.The growing need for rational consumption of electricity, as well as more intelligent, technological, and sustainable management of production, distribution, and consumption, are reasons why several countries in the world are implementing smart grids and, consequently, smart meters. However, despite the benefits associated with using this device, there is still limited consumer awareness of it, which creates a barrier in the process of acceptance and implementation of this technology. From the lack of studies on the acceptance of residential smart meters in Brazil and the need to update the electrical system, this study seeks to fill this gap both in the literature and in the practice of companies in the sector. Therefore, the present work aimed to measure the effect of the factors for the acceptance of residential smart energy meters in the region of Joinville – Santa Catarina. Thus, an estimation model based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) was developed to assess the factors that influence consumers' acceptance and intention to use residential smart energy meters. The data needed to estimate the proposed model were obtained through a research instrument (online survey), resulting in a sample of 136 respondents from the target population of the study. From this survey, a bootstrap of 5,000 different samples was performed, and the model was estimated through structural equation modeling, more precisely the PLS-SEM (Partial Least Squares – Structural Equation Modeling) model. The estimated model indicates that the Performance Expectancy, Hedonic Motivation, and Social Influence constructs are the main factors that significantly contribute to the Intention to Use the smart energy meter by the target population. On the other hand, the constructs Effort Expectancy, Environmental Awareness, and Violation of Privacy did not prove to be significant in explaining the Intention to Use the smart meter. The Associated Costs construct, on the other hand, was not validated because it did not reach statistically satisfactory results of reliability, being removed from the estimated model. Concomitantly, a comparison was made between the coefficients (β) of the relations between the constructs obtained in this study with the coefficients of the main studies in the literature to enrich the discussion of the results and propose strategies to promote the acceptance of residential smart energy meters in the region of Joinville – SC. Finally, this work contributes to the global discussion on the acceptance of residential smart meters by bringing estimated results to a sample of a country without similar research yet. The results also provide subsidies to improve the processes of implementing smart energy meters to enhance acceptance among consumers and, consequently, advance towards the evolution of the current electrical system to smart grids in Brazil