Hypnagogia: The nature and function of the hypnagogic state

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.An analysis of the hypnagogic state (hypnagogia) leads to the conclusion that, far from being a simple phase of sleep, this state or process is a central phenomenon characterized by a constellation of psychological features which emerge as a function of the hypnagogic subject's loosening of ego boundaries (LEB) and are correlated with activities of subcortical structures. This analysis both facilitates the relating of hypnagogia to other states/ processes of the human organism, such as hypnosis, meditation, dreams, psi, schizophrenia, and creativity, and helps shed light on their nature. Further, hypnagogia is viewed as a circadian phenomenon. related to the basic restactivity cycle wherein it represents the cycle's dream component. As such it encompasses a variety of types of dream, the nocturnal or REM kind being only one of them. It, thus, constitutes the exemplification of a basic and pervading phenomenon herein termed Oneirosis, i.e. the need and readiness to have dreams and dreamlike experiences, such as hallucinations and quasi-hallucinations, throughout the 24 hour cycle independently of sleep and wakefulness. It is further proposed, on neurophysiological, developmental and psychological grounds, that this phenomenon is evolutionally older than sleep and wakefulness, that it has a hypometabolic and anxiety-reducing function, and that, by dint of its character of LEB, it enables the individual to slacken his ego strictness and become more tolerant as well as providing him with opportunities for more holistic experiences and continually renewed psychological orientations. Moreover, due to its unique character of riding between wakefulness and sleep, hypnagogia points to new evolutional possibilities, namely, to the establishment of a new psychological state serving collectively the functions of wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming.This work is funded by the Social Science Research Council (No. 79/20805/PSY

Machines that Dream: A New Challenge in Behavioral-Basic Robotics

The digital revolution is transforming contemporary society. Connective intelligence is an emerging property deriving from the embedding of intelligence into the connected data, concepts, applications, and people. Furthermore, the progress in behavioral-basic robotics opens new fields of innovative investigation.In this challenging context, might it make sense to provide machines with dreaming-like functions? Indeed, machine inactivity can be assimilated to the sleep state of living beings. Furthermore, when dreaming, we can interact with what we take to be other individuals and things and, in certain respects, the same happens in the virtual world.This paper highlights some new directions that have emerged in the field of Artificial Intelligence, focusing on the total Turing test and dreaming machines

Spontaneous Thought and Goal Pursuit: From Functions Such as Planning to Dysfunctions Such as Rumination

Spontaneous thoughts occur by default in the interstices between directed, task-oriented thoughts or moments of perceptual scrutiny. Their contents are overwhelmingly related to thinkers’ current goals, either directly or indirectly via associative networks, including past and future goals. Their evocation is accompanied by emotional responses that vary widely in type, valence, and intensity. Given these properties of thought flow, spontaneous thoughts are highly adaptive as (1) reminders of the individual’s larger agenda of goals while occupied with pursuing any one of them, (2) promotion of planning for future goal pursuits, (3) deeper understanding of past goal-related experiences, and (4) development of creative solutions to problems in goal pursuit. The same mechanisms may occasion repetitive but unproductive thoughts about the pursuit, the consequences of the failure, or the self, and strong negative emotions steering the train of thought may lead to narrowing of its focus, thus producing rumination

The embodied mind in sleep and dreaming : a theoretical framework and an empirical study of sleep, dreams and memory in meditators and controls

Les théories récentes de la conscience incarnée (embodiment) soulignent que l'esprit est un processus incarné, impliquant le cerveau, le corps et l'environnement. Plusieurs aspects de la cognition, de l’interaction sensorimotrice avec l’environnement à la pensée abstraite et métaphorique, ont été conceptualisés dans ce paradigme. Le sommeil et le rêve, cependant, ont rarement été abordés par des chercheurs dans le domaine de la conscience incarnée. Cette dissertation vise à montrer, en s’appuyant sur la phénoménologie, la philosophie énactive et des sciences cognitives du sommeil et des rêves, que le rêve est un processus incarné de formation de sens dans le monde onirique. Ce travail comporte trois objectifs principaux : 1) de démontrer que le rêve est incarné; 2) de clarifier les liens entre les expériences corporelles et la formation onirique; et 3) de préciser si la sensibilité corporelle accrue, en tant qu’une compétence entraînable, mène à des changements globaux dans la façon dont l'information est traitée en sommeil. Le premier objectif est une proposition inédite dans la science des rêves. Dans ce travail, j’analyse les études théoriques et empiriques sur le sujet afin de motiver la notion de l’incarnation corporelle du rêve. Je propose un cadre théorique et pratique pour la recherche en neurophénoménologie du sommeil (article I). Je montre que les rêves sont incarnés à plusieurs niveaux. Tout d'abord, de nombreux rêves contiennent des représentations du corps ou du mouvement corporel. Deuxièmement, les rêves sont vécus d’un à la première personne et ont une qualité spatiale. Troisièmement, les rêves sont structurés par l'émotion et l'affect, et sont ainsi enracinés dans le corps. Enfin, le corps du rêveur et le corps onirique ne sont pas indépendants l'un de l'autre : leur perméabilité est illustrée par les rêves intensifiés, les parasomnies (article II) et les études sur l'intégration des stimuli somato-sensoriels dans le contenu des rêves. Le deuxième objectif est d'étudier des exemples concrets dans lesquels les sensations somatiques, ou des altérations dans la perception habituelle du corps, affectent le contenu des rêves. Je procède par une revue de littérature sur l’état actuel des connaissances empiriques sur la paralysie du sommeil, en tant qu’un phénomène illustratif de l'altération dans l'expérience corporelle en sommeil (article II). Je conclus que les expériences corporelles dans le cadre de la paralysie du sommeil (pression sur la poitrine, sensations inhabituelles, et autres) nous informent sur la manière dont le sens altéré du corps modifie la perception de l'environnement, affecte les qualités de la relation intersubjective avec le monde, et illumine les caractéristiques subjectives fondamentales du sens de l'espace. En outre, les résultats de notre étude empirique démontrent que la stimulation somatosensorielle de la cheville en Stade 1 du sommeil et en sommeil paradoxal produit une variété de changements dans le contenu des rêves. Le troisième objectif était de tester si la formation contemplative, qui augmente la conscience corporelle, produit des changements dans l’apprentissage procédural, dans l'architecture du sommeil, dans la consolidation de la mémoire dépendante du sommeil et dans le contenu des rêves. Nous avons démontré (article III) que les méditants Vipassana et les sujets témoins avaient des patrons distincts de consolidation de la mémoire en sommeil : l'amélioration d'une tâche d’apprentissage procédural était associée à la densité des fuseaux du sommeil chez les méditants, tandis que les participants témoins avaient une relation forte entre l’amélioration de la tâche et durée du sommeil paradoxal. En outre, nous avons constaté une fréquence réduite des fuseaux du sommeil chez les méditants, ce qui suggère que la pratique de la méditation centrée sur le corps peut avoir un effet à long terme sur l’organisation et la fonction du sommeil. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats de cette enquête permettent de conclure que le rêve est un processus incarné de formation du sens, texturé par des souvenirs et des émotions, et que le rêveur n'est pas déconnecté de leur corps ou du monde extérieur. En outre, l’entrainement à la conscience corporelle peut produire des changements globaux dans l'architecture du sommeil et dans les processus cognitifs du sommeil, y compris les rêves et la consolidation de la mémoire. Ces résultats ont des implications théoriques et pratiques pour la recherche sur les fonctions du sommeil, des rêves et le rôle du corps dans l'expérience subjective.Recent theories of cognition have stressed that the mind is an embodied process, one involving brain, body, and environment. Many aspects of cognition, from waking sensorimotor coping with the world to other aspects of the mind, such as metaphor and abstract thought, have been explicated under this framework. Sleep and dreaming, however, have only rarely been approached by embodied mind theorists. In this dissertation, I draw on work in phenomenology, enactivism, and the cognitive science of sleep and dreaming, I aim to show that dreaming is an embodied process of sense-making in the dream world. This work has three main goals: 1) to argue that the dreaming mind is embodied; 2) to clarify the links between bodily experiences and oneiric mentation; and 3) to test whether increased bodily awareness as a trainable skill contributes to global changes in the way that the mind treats information in sleep. The first goal is a novel proposal in dream science. In this work, I review evidence for embodied dreaming and propose a theoretical and practical framework for neurophenomenological research (Article I). I propose that dreams are embodied in a number of different ways. First, many dreams contain representations of body or bodily movement. Second, dreams are experienced from a first-person point of view, and have a spatial quality. Third, dreams are structured by emotion and affect, and thus are rooted in the body. Finally, sleeping and dreaming bodies are not independent of each other; their permeability is exemplified by intensified dreams, parasomnias (Article II), and studies of somatosensory stimuli incorporation into dream content. The second goal is to investigate some of the concrete ways in which somatic sensations or alterations in habitual perception of the physical body affect dream content. I review the current state of knowledge on sleep paralysis as an illustration of sleep-dependent alteration in bodily experience (Article II), and conclude that bodily experiences in sleep paralysis (pressure on chest, unusual sensations, and others) provide information about the myriad ways an altered sense of the body changes one’s perception of the environment, affects qualities of one’s intersubjective relationship with the world, and provides insight into the fundamental subjective features of the sense of space. Additionally, results of our empirical study show that somatosensory ankle stimulation at sleep onset and during REM sleep produces a variety of changes in dream content. The third goal is to study whether contemplative training, which has been shown to increase bodily self-awareness, produces changes in procedural learning, sleep architecture, sleep-dependent memory consolidation and dream content. We showed (Article III) that Vipassana meditators and controls had distinct patterns of sleep-dependent memory consolidation: improvement on a procedural learning task was associated with sleep spindle density in meditators, while control participants had a strong relationship between improvement on the task and REM sleep duration. Additionally, we found a reduced sleep spindle frequency in meditators, suggesting that body-based meditation practice may have long-term effects on sleep organisation and function. Overall, the results of this inquiry point to the conclusion that dreaming is an embodied process of sense-making, textured by memories and affect, and that the dreamer is not disconnected from their body or the outside world. Furthermore, training in bodily awareness may produce global changes in sleep architecture and sleep cognition, including dreaming and memory consolidation. These results have theoretical and practical implications for research on functions of sleep, dreams and the role of the body in subjective experience

Ode to positive constructive daydreaming

Nearly 60 years ago, Jerome L. Singer launched a groundbreaking research program into daydreaming (Singer, 1955, 1975, 2009) that presaged and laid the foundation for virtually every major strand of mind wandering research active today (Antrobus, 1999; Klinger, 1999, 2009). Here we review Singer’s enormous contribution to the field, which includes insights, methodologies, and tools still in use today, and trace his enduring legacy as revealed in the recent proliferation of mind wandering studies. We then turn to the central theme in Singer’s work, the adaptive nature of positive constructive daydreaming, which was a revolutionary idea when Singer began his work in the 1950s and remains underreported today. Last, we propose a new approach to answering the enduring question: Why does mind wandering persist and occupy so much of our time, as much as 50% of our waking time according to some estimates, if it is as costly as most studies suggest

Default and Executive Network Coupling Supports Creative Idea Production

2014-2015 Open Access Publishing Fund Grant Winner---The role of attention in creative cognition remains controversial. Neuroimaging studies have reported activation of brain regions linked to both cognitive control and spontaneous imaginative processes, raising questions about how these regions interact to support creative thought. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we explored this question by examining dynamic interactions between brain regions during a divergent thinking task. Multivariate pattern analysisrevealed a distributed network associated with divergent thinking, including several core hubs of the default (posterior cingulate) and executive (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) networks. The resting state network affiliation of these regions was confirmed using data from an independent sample of participants. Graph theory analysis assessed global efficiency of the divergent thinking network, and network efficiency was found to increase as a function of individual differences in divergent thinking ability. Moreover, temporal connectivity analysis revealed increased coupling between default and salience network regions (bilateral insula) at the beginning of the task, followed by increased coupling between default and executive network regions at later stages. Such dynamic coupling suggests that divergent thinking involves cooperation between brain networks linked to cognitive control and spontaneous thought, which may reflect focused internal attention and the top-down control of spontaneous cognition during creative idea production

The Multistream Self: Biophysical, Mental, Social, and Existential

Self is difficult to define because of its multiple, constitutive streams of functional existence. A more comprehensive and expanded definition of self is proposed. The standard bio-psycho-social model of psyche is expanded to biophysical-mental-social and existential self. The total human experience is better understood and explained by adding the existential component. Existential refers to lived human experience, which is firmly rooted in reality. Existential living is the capacity to live fully in the present, and respond freely and flexibly to new experience without fear. Four common fears of isolation, insecurity, insignificance, and death can be overcome by developing a lifestyle of whole-hearted engagement in the present reality, creative problem solving, self-actualization, and altruism. Such integrative living creates a sense of presence with self-awareness, understanding, and existential well-being. Well-being is defined as a life of happiness, contentment, low distress, and good health with positive outlook. Self is a complex, integrative process of living organisms. It organizes, coordinates, and integrates energy-information within and around itself, spontaneously, unconsciously, and consciously. Self-process is understood in terms of synergetics, coordination dynamics, and energy-information–directed self-organization. It is dynamic, composite, ever renewing, and enduring. It can be convergent or divergent, and can function as the source or target of its own behavior-mentation. The experience of self is continuously generated by spontaneous activation of neural networks in the cerebral neocortex by the brainstem-diencephalic arousal system. The multiple constitutive behavioral-mental streams develop concurrently into a unique experience of self, specific for a person at his/her developmental stage. The chronological neuro-behavioral-mental development of self is described in detail from embryonic stage to old age. Self can be behaviorally-mentally oriented and realized in three complimentary modes of being: egocentric, allocentric, and ecosystemic or existential. The existential mode is both immanent and transcendent, and can be self-actualized, resulting in a healthy, creative, conflict-free, and meaningful life

Shamanic Cosmology as an Evolutionary Neurocognitive Epistemology

The biological foundation for a shamanic epistemology is indicated by the cross-cultural distribution of a shamanic cosmology derived from knowledge obtained during altered consciousness. These special forms of consciousness involve integrative brain conditions that access ancient ways of knowing, expressive systems which have evolutionary roots in the communicative and social processes involved in animal displays or rituals. These were augmented over the course of hominid evolution into expressive and mimetic activities that provided a basis for significant epistemological expansions of consciousness exemplified in shamanic out-of-body (OBE) experiences. These manifestations of consciousness involved new modes of self and processes of knowing, reflecting selection for expanded symbolic brain processes that enhanced psychological, cognitive integration and extra-personal cognition. Shamanic alterations of consciousness also contributed to experiences of personal spirit essences and encounters with extrapersonal spirit presences that reflected activation of innate brain operators involving self-structures and psyche. The evolution of the hominid capacity for knowing involved new understandings of nature (animism), mind (spirits), self (power animals) and others (gods) that were elicited by shamanic practices and expressed though a shamanistic ideology. These phenomena reflect activation of innate aspects of consciousness, illustrating features of shamanism as a neuroepistemology

Primary and secondary processing of a waking subliminal stimulus in REM and non-REM sleep - empirical investigation of a psychoanalytic concept

The present study deals with one of the fundamental psychoanalytic assumptions: the existence of the primary and secondary process. It can be hypothesized that these two different ways of mental functioning differentiate not only conscious and unconscious processes but also REM- and non-REM-sleep. In REM-sleep, when most bizarre dreams occur, the primary process is supposed to be the dominant mode of thinking while non-REM-sleep, when dreams are mainly characterized as thought-like, is supposed to be organized along secondary process lines. So far, only one single study tried to test this hypothesis applying the method of subliminal stimulation on the sleep-dream cycle (Shevrin & Fisher, 1967). In this experimental study we successfully replicated these early findings. Moreover, additional stimuli were used and neurophysiological measurements recorded. Our findings demonstrate that REM- and non-REM-sleep can indeed be differentiated on the basis of their prevailing kind of mental functioning matching the Freudian idea of primary and secondary process thinking