Ultra-low power, low-voltage transmitter at ISM band for short range transceivers

Tezin basılısı İstanbul Şehir Üniversitesi Kütüphanesi'ndedir.The increasing demand for technology to be used in every aspect of our lives has led the way to many new applications and communication standards. WSN and BAN are some of the new examples that utilize electronic circuit design in the form of very small sensors to perform their applications. They consist of small sensor nodes and have applications ranging from entertainment to medicine. Requirements such as decreasing the area and the power consumption help to have longer-lasting batteries and smaller devices. The standard paves the way for the devices from different vendors to communicate with each other, and that motivates us to make designs as compatible with the standard as it can be. In this thesis, an ultra-low power high efficient transmitter with a small area working at 2.4 GHz have been designed for BAN applications. A study on the system-view perspective is important in optimizing the area and power since the transmitter architecture can change the circuit design. From a circuit design perspective, seeking to decrease power consumption means thinking of new techniques to implement the same function or a new system. Inspired by new trends, this research presents a design solution to the previously mentioned problem and hopefully, after fabrication, the measured results will match the simulated results to prove the validity of the design.Declaration of Authorship ii Abstract iv Öz v Acknowledgments vii List of Figures x List of Tables xiii Abbreviations xiv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Communication Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2.1 Digital Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2.2 Unwanted Power Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2.3 Multiple Access Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 Transmitter System Level Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.1 Low Power Wireless Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.4 Low-Power Wireless Transceiver systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.4.1 Survey of the previous work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.4.2 The Designed Transmitter System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.5 Ultra-Low Power Transmitters Performance Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6 Thesis Contribution and Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 Circuit Design for The Transmitter 11 2.1 Technology Characterization and Modeling for Low-Power Designs . . . 11 2.1.1 Passive Components modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.1.2 Active Components Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1.3 MOS Transistor Sub-threshold Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1.4 MOS Transistor Simulation-Based Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2 Low-Voltage Low-Power Analog and RF Design Principles . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2.1 Separate Gate Biasing of The Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2.2 Body Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.3 Low-Voltage Analog Mixed Biasing Circuit Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3.1 DAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3.2 Operational Amplifier Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4 Crystal Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4.1 The MEMS Crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4.2 Crystal Oscillator Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.4.3 Design of The CMOS Crystal Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.5 Pre-Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.6 OOK Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.7 BPSK Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.8 Digital Control of the Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.9 Power Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.9.1 ULP PA Topologies Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.9.2 The Push-Pull PA Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.10 Transmit/Receive (T/R) Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.10.1 T/R Switch Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.10.2 Suggested Low-Area Low-Voltage RF Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3 Transmitter Integration and Final Results 48 3.1 Transmitter Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.2 Transmitter Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.3 Results Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.4 Results Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4 Conclusions 59 4.1 Thesis Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 A Bond Wire Parasitic Modeling 61 B Crystal Oscillator With Parasitic Effects 67 B.1 Simulation of FBAR with Parasitic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 B.2 Root Locus Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Bibliography 7

Advances in Development of Quartz Crystal Oscillators at Liquid Helium Temperatures

This work presents some recent results in the field of liquid helium {bulk acoustic wave} oscillators. The discussion covers the whole development procedure starting from component selection and characterization and concluding with actual phase noise measurements. The associated problems and limitations are discussed. The unique features of obtained phase noise power spectral densities are explained with a proposed extension of the Leeson effect.Comment: Cryogenics, 201

Noise Measurement Setup for Quartz Crystal Microbalance

Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is a high sensitive chemical sensor which has found widespread spectrum of applications. There are several mechanisms that are related to fluctuation phenomena. Since the aim of our research is oriented to study the sensitivity and influence of different kind of noises on sensor resolution, we modified an existing method to measure the small frequency fluctuation of QCM. The paper describes our measurement setup, in which a quartz crystal oscillator with coated active layers and a reference quartz oscillator are driven by two oscillator circuits. Each one regulates a frequency of a crystal at the minimum impedance which corresponds to the series resonance. A data-acquisition card triggers on the rise-edges of the output signal and stores these corresponding times on which the instantaneous frequency is estimated by own-written software. In comparison to other measurement setups, our approach can acquire immediate change of QCM frequency, thus, chemical processes can be even described on the basis of high-order statistics. The experiments were provided on quartz crystals with the sorption layer of polypyrrole, which is suitable for the construction of QCM humidity sensors

Ultra Low Power Analog Circuits for Wireless Sensor Node System.

This thesis will discuss essential analog circuit blocks required in ultra-low power wireless sensor node systems. A wireless sensor network system requires very high energy and power efficiency which is difficult to achieve with traditional analog circuits. First, 5.58nW real time clock using a DLL (Delay Locked Loop)-assisted pulse-driven crystal oscillator is discussed. In this circuit, the operational amplifier used in the traditional circuit was replaced with pulsed drivers. The pulse was generated at precise timing by a DLL. The circuit parts operate in different supply levels, generated on chip by using a switched capacitor network. The circuit was tested at different supply voltage and temperature. Its frequency characteristic along with power consumption were measured and compared to the traditional circuit. Next, a Schmitt trigger based pulse-driven crystal oscillator is discussed. In the first chapter, a DLL was used to generate a pulse with precise timing. However, testing results and recent study showed that the crystal oscillator can sustain oscillation even with inaccurate pulse timing. In this chapter, pulse location is determined by the Schmitt trigger. Simulation results show that this structure can still sustain oscillation at different process corners and temperature. In the next chapter, a sub-nW 8 bit SAR ADC (Successive Approximation Analog-to-Digital Converter) using transistor-stack DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) is discussed. To facilitate design effort and reduce the layout dependent effect, a conventional capacitive DAC was replaced with transistor-stack DAC with a 255:1 multiplexer. The control logic was designed with both TSPC (True Single Phase Clock) and CMOS logic to minimize transistor count. The ADC was implemented in a 65nm CMOS process and tested at different sampling rates and input signal frequency. Its linearity and power consumption was measured. Also, a similar design was implemented and tested using 180nm CMOS process as part of a sensor node system. Lastly, a multiple output level voltage regulator using a switched capacitor network for low-cost system is discussed.PhDElectrical EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/111626/1/dmyoon_1.pd

Experimental Clock Calibration\\on a Crystal-Free Mote-on-a-Chip

The elimination of the off-chip frequency reference, typically a crystal oscillator, would bring important benefits in terms of size, price and energy efficiency to IEEE802.15.4 compliant radios and systems-on-chip. The stability of on-chip oscillators is orders of magnitude worse than that of a crystal. It is known that as the temperature changes, they can drift more than 50 ppm/{\deg}C. This paper presents the result of an extensive experimental study. First, we propose mechanisms for crystal-free radios to be able to track an IEEE802.15.4 join proxy, calibrate the on-chip oscillators and maintain calibration against temperature changes. Then, we implement the resulting algorithms on a crystal-free platform and present the results of an experimental validation. We show that our approach is able to track a crystal-based IEEE802.15.4-compliant join proxy and maintain the requested radio frequency stability of +/-40 ppm, even when subject to temperature variation of 2{\deg}C/min.Comment: CNERT: Computer and Networking Experimental Research using Testbeds, in conjunction with IEEE INFOCOM 2019, April 29 - May 2, 2019, Paris, Franc

An X-Ray Regenerative Amplifier Free-Electron Laser Using Diamond Pinhole MIrrors

Free-electron lasers (FELs) have been built ranging in wavelength from long-wavelength oscillators using partial wave guiding through ultraviolet through hard x-ray FELs that are either seeded or start from noise (SASE). Operation in the x-ray spectrum has relied on single-pass SASE due either to the lack of seed lasers or difficulties in the design of x-ray mirrors. However, recent developments in the production of diamond crystal Bragg reflectors point the way to the design of regenerative amplifiers (RAFELs) which are, essentially, low-Q x-ray free-electron laser oscillators (XFELOs) that out-couple a large fraction of the optical power on each pass. A RAFEL using a six-mirror resonator providing out-coupling of 90% or more through a pinhole in the first downstream mirror is proposed and analyzed using the MINERVA simulation code for the undulator interaction and the Optics Propagation Code (OPC) for the resonator. MINERVA/OPC has been used in the past to simulate infrared FEL oscillators. For the present purpose, OPC has been modified to treat Bragg reflection from diamond crystal mirrors. The six-mirror resonator design has been analyzed within the context of the LCLS-II beamline under construction at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and using the HXR undulator which is also to be installed on the LCLS-II beamline. Simulations have been run to optimize and characterize the properties of the RAFEL, and indicate that substantial powers are possible at the fundamental (3.05 keV) and third harmonic (9.15 keV).Comment: 9 pages, 14 figure

On the 1/f Frequency Noise in Ultra-Stable Quartz Oscillators

The frequency flicker of an oscillator, which appears as a 1/f^3 line in the phase noise spectral density, and as a floor on the Allan variance plot, originates from two basic phenomena, namely: (1) the 1/f phase noise turned into 1/f frequency noise via the Leeson effect, and (2) the 1/f fluctuation of the resonator natural frequency. The discussion on which is the dominant effect, thus on how to improve the stability of the oscillator, has been going on for years without giving a clear answer. This article tackles the question by analyzing the phase noise spectrum of several commercial oscillators and laboratory prototypes, and demonstrates that the fluctuation of the resonator natural frequency is the dominant effect. The investigation method starts from reverse engineering the oscillator phase noise in order to show that if the Leeson effect was dominant, the resonator merit factor Q would be too low as compared to the available technology.Comment: 20 pages, list of symbols, 1 table, 6 figures, 43 reference

Titanium-doped sapphire laser research and design study

Three main topics were considered in this study: the fundamental laser parameters of titanium-doped sapphire, characterization of commercially grown material, and design of a tunable, narrow-linewidth laser. Fundamental parameters investigated included the gain cross section, upper-state lifetime as a function of temperature and the surface-damage threshold. Commercial material was found to vary widely in the level of absorption of the laser wavelength with the highest absorption in Czochralski-grown crystals. Several Yi:sapphire lasers were constructed, including a multimode laser with greater than 50mJ of output energy and a single-transverse-mode ring laser, whose spectral and temporal characteristics were completely characterized. A design for a narrow-linewidth (single-frequency) Ti:sapphire laser was developed, based on the results of the experimental work. The design involves the use of a single-frequency, quasi-cw master oscillator, employed as an injection source for a pulsed ring laser

Prototyping a Capacitive Sensing Device for Gesture Recognition

Capacitive sensing is a technology that can detect proximity and touch. It can also be utilized to measure position and acceleration of gesture motions. This technology has many applications, such as replacing mechanical buttons in a gaming device interface, detecting respiration rate without direct contact with the skin, and providing gesture sensing capability for rehabilitation devices. In this thesis, an approach to prototype a capacitive gesture sensing device using the Eagle PCB design software is demonstrated. In addition, this paper tested and evaluated the resulting prototype device, validating the effectiveness of the approach