Real100G.COM

In 2012 a group of researchers proposed a basic research initiative to the German Research Foundation (DFG) as a special priority project (SPP) with the name: Wireless 100 Gbps and beyond. The main goal of this initiative was the investigation of architectures, technologies and methods to go well beyond the state of the art. The target of 100 Gbps was set far away from the (at that time) achievable 1 Gbps such that it was not possible to achieve promising results just by tuning some parameters. We wanted to find breakthrough solutions. When we started the work on the proposal we discussed the challenges to be addressed in order to advancing the wireless communication speed significantly. Having the fundamental Shannon boundary in mind we discussed how to achieve the 100 Gbps speed.Angesichts der rapiden Entwicklung der Funkkommunikation hat die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft im Jahr 2012 ein Schwerpunktprogramm mit dem Titel "Wireless 100 Gbps and beyound" (dt.: Drahtloskommunikation mit 100 Gbps und mehr) gestartet. Diese Initiative zielte auf neue Lösungen, Methoden und neues Wissen zur Lösung des Problems des kontinuierlichen Bedarfs an immer höheren Datenraten im Bereich der Funkkommunikation. Eine international besetze Jury hat etliche Projektvorschläge evaluiert, aus denen 11 Projekte ausgewählt und über zweimal 3 Jahre von Mitte 2013 bis Mitte 2019 gefördert wurden. Das vorliegende Buch versammelt die Ansätze, Architekturen und Erkenntnisse der Projekte. Es überspannt einen breiten Themenbereich, angefangen mit speziellen Fragen der physikalischen Übertragung, des Antennendesigns und der HF-Eingangs-Architekturen für unterschiedliche Frequenzbereiche bis 240 GHz. Darüber hinaus beschreibt das Buch Ansätze für Ultra-Hochgeschwindigkeits-Funksysteme, deren Basisbandverarbeitung, Kodierung sowie mögliche Umsetzungen. Nicht zuletzt wurden auch Fragen des Protokolldesigns behandelt, um eine enge Integration in moderne Computersysteme zu erleichtern

Vidutinių dažnių 5G belaidžių tinklų galios stiprintuvų tyrimas

This dissertation addresses the problems of ensuring efficient radio fre-quency transmission for 5G wireless networks. Taking into account, that the next generation 5G wireless network structure will be heterogeneous, the device density and their mobility will increase and massive MIMO connectivity capability will be widespread, the main investigated problem is formulated – increasing the efficiency of portable mid-band 5G wireless network CMOS power amplifier with impedance matching networks. The dissertation consists of four parts including the introduction, 3 chapters, conclusions, references and 3 annexes. The investigated problem, importance and purpose of the thesis, the ob-ject of the research methodology, as well as the scientific novelty are de-fined in the introduction. Practical significance of the obtained results, defended state-ments and the structure of the dissertation are also included. The first chapter presents an extensive literature analysis. Latest ad-vances in the structure of the modern wireless network and the importance of the power amplifier in the radio frequency transmission chain are de-scribed in detail. The latter is followed by different power amplifier archi-tectures, parameters and their improvement techniques. Reported imped-ance matching network design methods are also discussed. Chapter 1 is concluded distinguishing the possible research vectors and defining the problems raised in this dissertation. The second chapter is focused around improving the accuracy of de-signing lumped impedance matching network. The proposed methodology of estimating lumped inductor and capacitor parasitic parameters is dis-cussed in detail provi-ding complete mathematical expressions, including a summary and conclusions. The third chapter presents simulation results for the designed radio fre-quency power amplifiers. Two variations of Doherty power amplifier archi-tectures are presented in the second part, covering the full step-by-step de-sign and simulation process. The latter chapter is concluded by comparing simulation and measurement results for all designed radio frequency power amplifiers. General conclusions are followed by an extensive list of references and a list of 5 publications by the author on the topic of the dissertation. 5 papers, focusing on the subject of the discussed dissertation, have been published: three papers are included in the Clarivate Analytics Web of Sci-ence database with a citation index, one paper is included in Clarivate Ana-lytics Web of Science database Conference Proceedings, and one paper has been published in unreferred international conference preceedings. The au-thor has also made 9 presentations at 9 scientific conferences at a national and international level.Dissertatio

LOW-POWER FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS BASED ON INJECTION LOCKING

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

Disseny microelectrnic de circuits discriminadors de polsos pel detector LHCb

The aim of this thesis is to present a solution for implementing the front end system of the Scintillator Pad Detector (SPD) of the calorimeter system of the LHCb experiment that will start in 2008 at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. The requirements of this specific system are discussed and an integrated solution is presented, both at system and circuit level. We also report some methodological achievements. In first place, a method to study the PSRR (and any transfer function) in fully differential circuits taking into account the effect of parameter mismatch is proposed. Concerning noise analysis, a method to study time variant circuits in the frequency domain is presented and justified. This would open the possibility to study the effect of 1/f noise in time variants circuits. In addition, it will be shown that the architecture developed for this system is a general solution for front ends in high luminosity experiments that must be operated with no dead time and must be robust against ballistic deficit

Analysis and Design of a Sub-THz Ultra-Wideband Phased-Array Transmitter

This thesis investigates circuits and systems for broadband high datarate transmitter systems in the millimeter-wave (mm-wave) spectrum. During the course of this dissertation, the design process and characterization of a power efficient and wideband binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) transmitter integrated circuit (IC) with local oscillator (LO) frequency multiplication and 360° phase control for beam steering is studied. All required circuit blocks are designed based on the theoretical analysis of the underlying principles, optimized, fabricated and characterized in the research laboratory targeting low power consumption, high efficiency and broadband operation. The phase-controlled push-push (PCPP) architecture enabling frequency multiplication by four in a single stage is analytically studied and characterized finding an optimum between output power and second harmonic suppression depending on the input amplitude. A PCPP based LO chain is designed. A circuit is fabricated establishing the feasibility of this architecture for operation at more than 200 GHz. Building on this, a second circuit is designed, which produces among the highest saturated output powers at 2 dBm. At less than 100 mW of direct current (DC) power consumption, this results in a power-added efficiency (PAE) of 1.6 % improving the state of the art by almost 30 %. Phase-delayed and time-delayed approaches to beam steering are analyzed, identifying and discussing design challenges like area consumption, signal attenuation and beam squint. A 60 GHz active vector-sum phase-shifter with high gain of 11.3 dB and output power of 5 dBm, improving the PAE of the state of the art by a factor of 30 achieving 6.29 %, is designed. The high gain is possible due to an optimization of the orthogonal signal creation stage enabled by studying and comparing different architectures leading to a trade off of lower signal attenuation for higher area consumption in the chosen electromagnetic coupler. By combining this with a frequency quadrupler, a phase steering enabled LO chain for operation at 220 GHz is created and characterized, confirming the preceding analysis of the phase-frequency relation during multiplication. It achieves a power gain of 21 dB, outperforming comparable designs by 25 dB. This allows the combination of phase control, frequency multiplication and pre-amplification. The radio frequency (RF) efficiency is increased 40-fold to 0.99 %, with a total power consumption of 105 mW. Motivated by the distorting effect of beam squint in phase-delayed broadband array systems, a novel analog hybrid beam steering architecture is devised, combining phase-delayed and time-delayed steering with the goal of reducing the beam squint of phase-delayed systems and large area consumption of time-delayed circuits. An analytical design procedure is presented leading to the research finding of a beam squint reduction potential of more than 83 % in an ideal system. Here, the increase in area consumption is outweighed by the reduction in beam squint. An IC with a low power consumption of 4.3 mW has been fabricated and characterized featuring the first time delay circuit operating at above 200 GHz. By producing most of the beam direction by means of time delay the beam squinting can be reduced by more than 75 % in measurements while the subsequent phase shifter ensures continuous beam direction control. Together, the required silicon area can be reduced to 43 % compared to timedelayed systems in the same frequency range. Based on studies of the optimum signal feeding and input matching of a Gilbert cell, an ultra-wideband, low-power mixer was designed. A bandwidth of more than 100 GHz was achieved exceeding the state of the art by 23 %. With a conversion gain of –13 dB, this enables datarates of more than 100 Gbps in BPSK operation. The findings are consolidated in an integrated transmitter operating around 246 GHz doubling the highest published measured datarates of transmitters with LO chain and power amplifier in BPSK operation to 56 Gbps. The resulting transmitter efficiency of 7.4 pJ/bit improves the state of the art by 70 % and 50 % over BPSK and quadrature phaseshift keying (QPSK) systems, respectively. Together, the results of this work form the basis for low-power and efficient next-generation wireless applications operating at many times the datarates available today.:Abstract 3 Zusammenfassung 5 List of Symbols 11 List of Acronyms 17 Prior Publications 19 1. Introduction 21 1.1. Motivation........................... 21 1.2. Objective of this Thesis ................... 25 1.3. Structure of this Thesis ................... 27 2. Overview of Employed Technologies and Techniques 29 2.1. IntegratedCircuitTechnology................ 29 2.2. Transmission Lines and Passive Structures . . . . . . . . 35 2.3. DigitalModulation ...................... 41 3. Frequency Quadrupler 45 3.1. Theoretical Analysis of Frequency Multiplication Circuits 45 3.2. Phase-Controlled Push-Push Principle for Frequency Quadrupling.......................... 49 3.3. Stand-alone Phase-Controlled Push-Push Quadrupler . 60 3.4. Phase-Controlled Push-Push Quadrupler based LO-chain with High Output Power ............... 72 9 4. Array Systems and Dynamic Beam Steering 91 4.1. Theoretical Analysis of BeamSteering. . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.2. Local Oscillator Phase Shifting with Vector-Modulator PhaseShifters......................... 107 4.3. Hybrid True-Time and Phase-Delayed Beam Steering . 131 5. Ultra-Wide Band Modulator for BPSK Operation 155 6. Broadband BPSK Transmitter System for Datarates up to 56 Gbps 167 6.1. System Architecture ..................... 168 6.2. Measurement Technique and Results . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.3. Summary and performance comparison . . . . . . . . . 185 7. Conclusion and Outlook 189 A. Appendix 195 Bibliography 199 List of Figures 227 Note of Thanks 239 Curriculum Vitae 241Diese Dissertation untersucht Schaltungen und Systeme für breitbandige Transmittersysteme mit hoher Datenrate im Millimeterwellen (mm-wave) Spektrum. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit werden der Entwurfsprozess und die Charakterisierung eines leistungseffizienten und breitbandigen integrierten Senders basierend auf binärer Phasenumtastung (BPSK) mit Frequenzvervielfachung des Lokaloszillatorsignals und 360°-Phasenkontrolle zur Strahlsteuerung untersucht. Alle erforderlichen Schaltungsblöcke werden auf Grundlage von theoretischen Analysen der zugrundeliegenden Prinzipien entworfen, optimiert, hergestellt und im Forschungslabor charakterisiert, mit den Zielen einer niedrigen Leistungsaufnahme, eines hohen Wirkungsgrades und einer möglichst großen Bandbreite. Die phasengesteuerte Push-Push (PCPP)-Architektur, welche eine Frequenzvervierfachung in einer einzigen Stufe ermöglicht, wird analytisch untersucht und charakterisiert. Dabei wird ein Optimum zwischen Ausgangsleistung und Unterdrückung der zweiten Harmonischen des Eingangssignals in Abhängigkeit von der Eingangsamplitude gefunden. Es wird eine LO-Kette auf PCPP-Basis entworfen. Eine Schaltung wird präsentiert, die die Machbarkeit dieser Architektur für den Betrieb bei mehr als 200 GHz nachweist. Darauf aufbauend wird eine zweite Schaltung entworfen, die mit 2 dBm eine der höchsten publizierten gesättigten Ausgangsleistungen erzeugt. Mit einer Leistungsaufnahme von weniger als 100mW ergibt sich ein Leistungswirkungsgrad (PAE) von 1.6 %, was den Stand der Technik um fast 30 % verbessert. Es werden phasenverzögerte und zeitverzögerte Ansätze zur Steuerung der Strahlrichtung analysiert, wobei Entwicklungsherausforderungen wie Flächenverbrauch, Signaldämpfung und Strahlschielen identifiziert und diskutiert werden. Ein aktiver Vektorsummen-Phasenschieber mit hoher Verstärkung von 11.3 dB und einer Ausgangsleistung von 5 dBm, der mit einer PAE von 6.29 % den Stand der Technik um den Faktor 30 verbessert, wird entworfen. Die hohe Verstärkung ist zum Teil auf eine Optimierung der orthogonalen Signalerzeugungsstufe zurückzuführen, die durch die Untersuchung und den Vergleich verschiedener Architekturen ermöglicht wird. Bei der Entscheidung für einen elektromagnetischen Koppler rechtfertigt die geringere Signaldämpfung einen höheren Flächenverbrauch. Durch die Kombination mit einem Frequenzvervierfacher wird eine LO-Kette mit Phasensteuerung für den Betrieb bei 220 GHz geschaffen und charakterisiert, was die vorangegangene Analyse der Phasen-FrequenzBeziehung während der Multiplikation bestätigt. Sie erreicht einen Leistungsgewinn von 21 dB und übertrifft damit vergleichbare Designs um 25dB. Dies ermöglicht die Kombination von Phasensteuerung, Frequenzvervielfachung und Vorverstärkung. Der HochfrequenzWirkungsgrad wird um das 40-fache auf 0.99 % bei einer Gesamtleistungsaufnahme von 105 mW gesteigert. Motiviert durch den verzerrenden Effekt des Strahlenschielens in phasengesteuerten Breitbandarraysystemen, wird eine neuartige analoge hybride Strahlsteuerungsarchitektur untersucht, die phasenverzögerte und zeitverzögerte Steuerung kombiniert. Damit wird sowohl das Strahlenschielen phasenverzögerter Systeme als auch der große Flächenverbrauch zeitverzögerter Schaltungen reduziert. Es wird ein analytisches Entwurfsverfahren vorgestellt, das zu dem Forschungsergebnis führt, dass in einem idealen System ein Potenzial zur Reduktion des Strahlenschielens von mehr als 83 % besteht. Dabei wird die Zunahme des Flächenverbrauchs durch die Verringerung des Strahlenschielens aufgewogen. Es wird ein IC mit einer geringen Leistungsaufnahme von 4.3mW hergestellt und charakterisiert. Dabei wird die erste Zeitverzögerungsschaltung entworfen, die bei über 200 GHz arbeitet. Durch die Erzeugung eines Großteils der Strahlrichtung mittels Zeitverzögerung kann das Schielen des Strahls bei Messungen um mehr als 75% reduziert werden, während der nachfolgende Phasenschieber eine kontinuierliche Steuerung der Strahlrichtung gewährleistet. Insgesamt kann die benötigte Siliziumfläche im Vergleich zu zeitverzögerten Systemen im gleichen Frequenzbereich auf 43 % reduziert werden. Auf der Grundlage von Studien zur optimalen Signaleinspeisung und Eingangsanpassung einer Gilbert-Zelle wird ein Ultrabreitband-Mischer mit geringem Stromverbrauch entworfen. Dieser erreicht eine Ausgangsbandbreite von mehr als 100 GHz, die den Stand der Technik um 23% übertrifft. Bei einer Wandlungsverstärkung von –13dB ermöglicht dies Datenraten von mehr als 100 Gbps im BPSK-Betrieb. Die Erkenntnisse werden in einem integrierten, breitbandigen Sender konsolidiert, der um 246 GHz arbeitet und die höchsten veröffentlichten gemessenen Datenraten für Sender mit LO-Signalkette und Leistungsverstärker im BPSK-Betrieb auf 56 Gbps verdoppelt. Die daraus resultierende Transmitter-Effizienz von 7.4 pJ/bit verbessert den Stand der Technik um 70 % bzw. 50 % gegenüber BPSKund Quadratur Phasenumtastung (QPSK)-Systemen. Zusammen bilden die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit die Grundlage für stromsparende, effiziente, mobile Funkanwendungen der nächsten Generation mit einem Vielfachen der heute verfügbaren Datenraten.:Abstract 3 Zusammenfassung 5 List of Symbols 11 List of Acronyms 17 Prior Publications 19 1. Introduction 21 1.1. Motivation........................... 21 1.2. Objective of this Thesis ................... 25 1.3. Structure of this Thesis ................... 27 2. Overview of Employed Technologies and Techniques 29 2.1. IntegratedCircuitTechnology................ 29 2.2. Transmission Lines and Passive Structures . . . . . . . . 35 2.3. DigitalModulation ...................... 41 3. Frequency Quadrupler 45 3.1. Theoretical Analysis of Frequency Multiplication Circuits 45 3.2. Phase-Controlled Push-Push Principle for Frequency Quadrupling.......................... 49 3.3. Stand-alone Phase-Controlled Push-Push Quadrupler . 60 3.4. Phase-Controlled Push-Push Quadrupler based LO-chain with High Output Power ............... 72 9 4. Array Systems and Dynamic Beam Steering 91 4.1. Theoretical Analysis of BeamSteering. . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.2. Local Oscillator Phase Shifting with Vector-Modulator PhaseShifters......................... 107 4.3. Hybrid True-Time and Phase-Delayed Beam Steering . 131 5. Ultra-Wide Band Modulator for BPSK Operation 155 6. Broadband BPSK Transmitter System for Datarates up to 56 Gbps 167 6.1. System Architecture ..................... 168 6.2. Measurement Technique and Results . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.3. Summary and performance comparison . . . . . . . . . 185 7. Conclusion and Outlook 189 A. Appendix 195 Bibliography 199 List of Figures 227 Note of Thanks 239 Curriculum Vitae 24

Analysis and Design of Ultra-Wideband Transceiver and Array

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

A Low-Power BFSK/OOK Transmitter for Wireless Sensors

In recent years, significant improvements in semiconductor technology have allowed consistent development of wireless chipsets in terms of functionality and form factor. This has opened up a broad range of applications for implantable wireless sensors and telemetry devices in multiple categories, such as military, industrial, and medical uses. The nature of these applications often requires the wireless sensors to be low-weight and energy-efficient to achieve long battery life. Among the various functions of these sensors, the communication block, used to transmit the gathered data, is typically the most power-hungry block. In typical wireless sensor networks, transmission range is below 10 meters and required radiated power is below 1 milliwatt. In such cases, power consumption of the frequency-synthesis circuits prior to the power amplifier of the transmitter becomes significant. Reducing this power consumption is currently the focus of various research endeavors. A popular method of achieving this goal is using a direct-modulation transmitter where the generated carrier is directly modulated with baseband data using simple modulation schemes. Among the different variations of direct-modulation transmitters, transmitters using unlocked digitally-controlled oscillators and transmitters with injection or resonator-locked oscillators are widely investigated because of their simple structure. These transmitters can achieve low-power and stable operation either with the help of recalibration or by sacrificing tuning capability. In contrast, phase-locked-loop-based (PLL) transmitters are less researched. The PLL uses a feedback loop to lock the carrier to a reference frequency with a programmable ratio and thus achieves good frequency stability and convenient tunability. This work focuses on PLL-based transmitters. The initial goal of this work is to reduce the power consumption of the oscillator and frequency divider, the two most power-consuming blocks in a PLL. Novel topologies for these two blocks are proposed which achieve ultra-low-power operation. Along with measured performance, mathematical analysis to derive rule-of-thumb design approaches are presented. Finally, the full transmitter is implemented using these blocks in a 130 nanometer CMOS process and is successfully tested for low-power operation

Circuits for Analog Signal Processing Employing Unconventional Active Elements

Disertační práce se zabývá zaváděním nových struktur moderních aktivních prvků pracujících v napěťovém, proudovém a smíšeném režimu. Funkčnost a chování těchto prvků byly ověřeny prostřednictvím SPICE simulací. V této práci je zahrnuta řada simulací, které dokazují přesnost a dobré vlastnosti těchto prvků, přičemž velký důraz byl kladen na to, aby tyto prvky byly schopny pracovat při nízkém napájecím napětí, jelikož poptávka po přenosných elektronických zařízeních a implantabilních zdravotnických přístrojích stále roste. Tyto přístroje jsou napájeny bateriemi a k tomu, aby byla prodloužena jejich životnost, trend navrhování analogových obvodů směřuje k stále většímu snižování spotřeby a napájecího napětí. Hlavním přínosem této práce je návrh nových CMOS struktur: CCII (Current Conveyor Second Generation) na základě BD (Bulk Driven), FG (Floating Gate) a QFG (Quasi Floating Gate); DVCC (Differential Voltage Current Conveyor) na základě FG, transkonduktor na základě nové techniky BD_QFG (Bulk Driven_Quasi Floating Gate), CCCDBA (Current Controlled Current Differencing Buffered Amplifier) na základě GD (Gate Driven), VDBA (Voltage Differencing Buffered Amplifier) na základě GD a DBeTA (Differential_Input Buffered and External Transconductance Amplifier) na základě BD. Dále je uvedeno několik zajímavých aplikací užívajících výše jmenované prvky. Získané výsledky simulací odpovídají teoretickým předpokladům.The dissertation thesis deals with implementing new structures of modern active elements working in voltage_, current_, and mixed mode. The functionality and behavior of these elements have been verified by SPICE simulation. Sufficient numbers of simulated plots are included in this thesis to illustrate the precise and strong behavior of those elements. However, a big attention to implement active elements by utilizing LV LP (Low Voltage Low Power) techniques is given in this thesis. This attention came from the fact that growing demand of portable electronic equipments and implantable medical devices are pushing the development towards LV LP integrated circuits because of their influence on batteries lifetime. More specifically, the main contribution of this thesis is to implement new CMOS structures of: CCII (Current Conveyor Second Generation) based on BD (Bulk Driven), FG (Floating Gate) and QFG (Quasi Floating Gate); DVCC (Differential Voltage Current Conveyor) based on FG; Transconductor based on new technique of BD_QFG (Bulk Driven_Quasi Floating Gate); CCCDBA (Current Controlled Current Differencing Buffered Amplifier) based on conventional GD (Gate Driven); VDBA (Voltage Differencing Buffered Amplifier) based on GD. Moreover, defining new active element i.e. DBeTA (Differential_Input Buffered and External Transconductance Amplifier) based on BD is also one of the main contributions of this thesis. To confirm the workability and attractive properties of the proposed circuits many applications were exhibited. The given results agree well with the theoretical anticipation.

ENABLING HARDWARE TECHNOLOGIES FOR AUTONOMY IN TINY ROBOTS: CONTROL, INTEGRATION, ACTUATION

The last two decades have seen many exciting examples of tiny robots from a few cm3 to less than one cm3. Although individually limited, a large group of these robots has the potential to work cooperatively and accomplish complex tasks. Two examples from nature that exhibit this type of cooperation are ant and bee colonies. They have the potential to assist in applications like search and rescue, military scouting, infrastructure and equipment monitoring, nano-manufacture, and possibly medicine. Most of these applications require the high level of autonomy that has been demonstrated by large robotic platforms, such as the iRobot and Honda ASIMO. However, when robot size shrinks down, current approaches to achieve the necessary functions are no longer valid. This work focused on challenges associated with the electronics and fabrication. We addressed three major technical hurdles inherent to current approaches: 1) difficulty of compact integration; 2) need for real-time and power-efficient computations; 3) unavailability of commercial tiny actuators and motion mechanisms. The aim of this work was to provide enabling hardware technologies to achieve autonomy in tiny robots. We proposed a decentralized application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) where each component is responsible for its own operation and autonomy to the greatest extent possible. The ASIC consists of electronics modules for the fundamental functions required to fulfill the desired autonomy: actuation, control, power supply, and sensing. The actuators and mechanisms could potentially be post-fabricated on the ASIC directly. This design makes for a modular architecture. The following components were shown to work in physical implementations or simulations: 1) a tunable motion controller for ultralow frequency actuation; 2) a nonvolatile memory and programming circuit to achieve automatic and one-time programming; 3) a high-voltage circuit with the highest reported breakdown voltage in standard 0.5 μm CMOS; 4) thermal actuators fabricated using CMOS compatible process; 5) a low-power mixed-signal computational architecture for robotic dynamics simulator; 6) a frequency-boost technique to achieve low jitter in ring oscillators. These contributions will be generally enabling for other systems with strict size and power constraints such as wireless sensor nodes

Photodetectors

In this book some recent advances in development of photodetectors and photodetection systems for specific applications are included. In the first section of the book nine different types of photodetectors and their characteristics are presented. Next, some theoretical aspects and simulations are discussed. The last eight chapters are devoted to the development of photodetection systems for imaging, particle size analysis, transfers of time, measurement of vibrations, magnetic field, polarization of light, and particle energy. The book is addressed to students, engineers, and researchers working in the field of photonics and advanced technologies