Labor Cost and Technology Adoption: Real Options Approach for the Case of Sugarcane Mechanization in Florida

Specialty crop farmers have expressed concern about labor shortages and cost increases which may arise with immigration reform. The large-scale mechanization of the Florida sugarcane harvest during the 1970s/80s serves as an historical example of how technologies evolved due to changes in local labor market conditions.Crop Production/Industries, Labor and Human Capital, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Comparison of energy-wood and pulpwood thinning systems in young birch stands

In early thinnings, a profitable alternative to pulpwood could be to harvest whole trees as energy-wood. In theoretical analyses, we compared the extractible volumes of energy-wood and pulpwood, and their respective gross values in differently aged stands of early birch thinnings at varying intensities of removal. In a parallel field experiment, we compared the productivity at harvest of either pulpwood or energy-wood, and the profitability when the costs of harvesting and forwarding were included. The theoretical analyses showed that the proportion of the total tree biomass removed as pulpwood increased with increasing thinning intensity and stem size. The biomass volume was 1.5–1.7 times larger than the pulpwood volume for a 13.9 diameter at breast height stand and 2.0–3.5 times larger for a 10.4 diameter at breast height stand. In the field experiment, the harvested volume per hectare of energy-wood was almost twice as high as the harvest of pulpwood. The harvesting productivity (trees Productive harvesting Work Time-hour−1) was 205 in the energy-wood and 120 in the pulpwood treatment. The pulpwood treatment generated a net loss, whereas the energy-wood treatment generated a net income, the average difference being €595 ha−1. We conclude that in birch-dominated early thinning stands, at current market prices, harvesting energy-wood is more profitable than harvesting pulpwood

Roadmap for teleoperation and automation of forwarding

Annually, about two billion m3 of industrial roundwood is harvested worldwide. For a mature forest industry like the Swedish, the next technological development leaps regarding harvest operations are likely to involve increased level of tele-operation and automation. The overall aim of this thesis was to simulate and evaluate combinations of teleoperation and automation of forwarding within the cut-to-length (CTL) harvesting method, and to discuss their potential application internationally. The economic potential of different configurations of a novel concept called semiautomated tele-extraction or just tele-extraction was investigated. To evaluate the potential application of such a concept in other countries, a worldwide mapping of harvesting methods and reasons behind differences, as well as a global analysis of the slope of forest land was done. The overall result showed that there is potential for between 6% and 19% cost reduction in Swedish CTL forwarding if teleextraction is applied. Automation of more time consuming work elements, such as loading, gave larger potential than automation of driving since more operator time was deliberated. The worldwide share of fully mechanized CTL harvesting was estimated to 37% and some of its drivers include high diesel price, gross domestic product and low share of steep terrain. About 80% of global forest land had slope less than 15°, with Africa, Russia, and the Amazon rainforest especially flat. Furthermore, there is potential for implementation of tele-extraction in at least ten countries with a high share of mechanized CTL harvesting, the potential annual volume is roughly between 100 and 150 million m3

Life cycle analysis of forest carbon in the central appalachian region

Forest management and wood product processing activities such as harvesting, transportation, and lumber processing consume fossil fuels and emit carbon dioxide. This emitted carbon dioxide creates credit carbon balance which is usually overlooked while estimating the carbon benefits from woody biomass and wood products. Accountability of carbon stored in woody biomass and wood products varies when such carbon emissions are considered. Factors such as, harvesting intensity, growth rate, dead trees and forest fires all affected the estimation of forest carbon balance while harvesting system determines the carbon emission from fossil fuel consumptions. Energy sources used in sawmills for electricity are also crucial in credit carbon balance analysis. Therefore, this study assessed (1) forest carbon balance of the mixed Appalachian hardwood forests and carbon emissions due to the use of fossil fuels in harvesting systems in West Virginia, and (2) carbon balance in hardwood lumber processing in the central Appalachian region. Data were obtained from a regional sawmill survey, public database and relevant publications.;Forest carbon balance and carbon emission were analyzed within a life cycle inventory framework of cradle to gate using sensitivity analysis and stochastic simulation. The results showed that the annual carbon balance of the forests per hectare was not significantly affected by carbon loss from the volume of removal, fire and dead trees. It was also found that carbon emission from combustion of fossil fuel using manual harvesting system was less than using mechanized harvesting systems. Though a minimal amount of carbon was emitted from harvesting systems, the forest carbon displacement rate during timber processing was affected largely by hauling compared to felling, processing, skidding and loading. Carbon emission quantity from fuel consumption and forest carbon displacement rate were also affected by harvest intensity, hauling, payload size, forest type, and machine productivity.;Credit carbon balance generated from lumber processing was statistically analyzed within the gate to gate life cycle inventory framework. Stochastic simulation of carbon emission and its impact on carbon balance and carbon flux during lumber processing were carried out under different operational scenarios. Credit carbon balance from electricity consumption varied among sawmills of different production levels and operation hours per week and also attributed effect of different head saws, lighting types and air compressors used at sawmills. Credit carbon balance significantly reduced the carbon accountability of the lumber in useful life period at first order of decay of carbon. Substantial amount of carbon flux attributed from energy consumption and exports of lumber reduced the carbon storage accountability of the lumber product. Increase of the carbon accountability of the lumber products and decrease of the carbon flux ratio could be achieved through using an efficient equipments at sawmills and an appropriate mixture of energy sources for electricity supply

Technical-Economic Analysis of Grapple Saw: A Stochastic Approach

The processing of Eucalyptus logs is a stage that follows the full tree system in mechanized forest harvesting, commonly performed by grapple saw. Therefore, this activity presents some associated uncertainties, especially regarding technical and silvicultural factors that can affect productivity and production costs. To get around this problem, Monte Carlo simulation can be applied, or rather a technique that allows to measure the probabilities of values from factors that are under conditions of uncertainties, to which probability distributions are attributed. The objective of this study was to apply the Monte Carlo method for determining the probabilistic technical-economical coefficients of log processing using two different grapple saw models. Field data were obtained from an area of forest planted with Eucalyptus, located in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. For the technical analysis, the time study protocol was applied by the method of continuous reading of the operational cycle elements, which resulted in production. As for the estimated cost of programmed hour, the applied methods were recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The incorporation of the uncertainties was carried out by applying the Monte Carlo simulation method, by which 100,000 random values were generated. The results showed that the crane empty movement is the operational element that most impacts the total time for processing the logs; the variables that most influence the productivity are specific to each grapple saw model; the difference of USD 0.04 m3 in production costs was observed between processors with gripping area of 0.58 m2 and 0.85 m2. The Monte Carlo method proved to be an applicable tool for mechanized wood harvesting for presenting a range of probability of occurrences for the operational elements and for the production cost

Operational and Environmental Impacts of Whole Tree Harvesting in the Southern United States

There has been a gradual development and adaptation of mechanized harvesting equipment in the last hundred years. There is also a gradual change in the silvicultural and forest management practices. Thinning and restoration cuts are being implemented to manage overstocked and unmanaged pine forests by using mechanized harvesting equipment. However, a challenge that occurs with the first thinning and restoration cuts is the utilization of the small-diameter trees and logging residues. Landowners, foresters, and loggers are thus interested in finding the most profitable option to utilize those logging residues produced during such harvesting operations. Another challenge that occurs with the restoration treatment using heavy machinery is forest soil compaction. Therefore, in chapter I, I develop a decision support tool for biomass harvesting in forest restoration efforts. It predicts the stumpage value for a set of stand and site conditions, access to markets, and two different harvesting options (conventional roundwood harvest and a biomass harvest). When the biomass value is higher than the pulpwood value, selling the wood chips to the local biomass market located within 64 km would result in a higher economic return than the conventional system. Whereas, when the biomass value is lower than the pulpwood value, it is profitable to sell pulpwood to the pulp mills located within 120 km, even if the biomass market is only 64 km far. In chapter II, I review literature about the factors affecting productivity and cost in a whole tree harvesting system. For every 0.4-inch increase in the average diameter of a tree, the productivity of tracked feller-bunchers increases by 10%. In chapter III, the causes and effects of soil compaction during logging operation are reviewed. It is necessary to minimize soil compaction by using suitable harvesting equipment, eliminating mechanized harvesting if the slope is greater than 20%, avoiding areas when the soil moisture content is above 30%, and implementing best management practices during and after harvesting. In chapter IV, I have presented potential research questions for future researchers, a scientific study on the quality of wood chips from different forest stands, and a periodic study of forest soil compaction corresponding to the site conditions and harvesting equipment in South Carolina

Production and cost analysis of two harvesting systems in central Appalachia

Cost and productivity are major factors when considering which type of harvesting system to operate. Observations were conducted on manual and mechanized harvesting operations in central Appalachian hardwood forest sites in order to obtain time study data. Production and cost analysis were conducted on the harvesting system data in order to compare the two systems. Chainsaw felling productivity was 363.4 ft3/PMH (2180.4 bdft/PMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.08/ft3 ({dollar}0.013/bdft). Cable skidding productivity was 289.4 ft3/PMH (1736.4 bdft/PMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.28/ft 3 ({dollar}0.05/bdft). Manual harvesting system productivity was 181.7 ft 3/SMH (1090.2 bdft/SMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.36/ft3 ({dollar}0.06/bdft). Feller-buncher felling productivity was 1266.6 ft3/PMH (7599.6 bdft/PMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.08/ft3 ({dollar}0.013/bdft). Productivity of top/delimbing with chainsaws after feller-buncher felling was 726.30 ft3/PMH (4357.8 bdft/PMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.04/ft 3 ({dollar}0.007/bdft). Grapple skidding productivity was 512.1 ft 3/PMH (3072.6 bdft/PMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.16/ft3 ({dollar}0.03/bdft). Mechanized harvesting system productivity was 716.94 ft 3/SMH (4301.6 bdft/SMH) and unit cost was {dollar}0.29/ft3 ({dollar}0.05/bdft). Results indicated that although hourly costs of operation were considerably higher for the mechanized system than the manual system, cost per unit volume was only {dollar}0.07/ft3 ({dollar}11.6/MBF) lower for the mechanized system

Multi-Stem Mechanized Harvesting Operation Analysis – Application of Arena 9 Discrete-event Simulation Software in Zululand, South Africa

Time studies were carried out on a stump-to-mill multi-stem Eucalyptus harvesting and transport operation in Zululand, South Africa in 2007. A simulation model (System 1) of this system was subsequently built using a commercial simulation software package (Arena 9) and data from the time studies incorporated into the model. Following this, two hypothetical stump-to-mill multi-stem models (Systems 2 and 3) were built using Arena 9 and parameterized input data. All models were found to adequately represent reality. Simulated harvesting system balance was improved through normalization of machine utilization in Systems 2 and 3. Production improvements were predicted with simulated timber production per month increasing by 31.1% and 30.8%, from System 1 with three trucks, to System 2 with four trucks, and System 3 with four trucks, respectively. Cost reduction was predicted, with the cost per unit of timber decreasing by 12.5% and 4.1%, from System 1 with three trucks, to System 2 with four trucks and System 3 with four trucks, respectively. Beneficial operational techniques were also confirmed using the simulation models. In the studied conditions delimbing and debarking of full trees into tree lengths at roadside with delimber-debarkers before cross-cutting and loading with a slasher was predicted to be $0.65/m3 cheaper than delimbing, de-barking, and cross-cutting full trees into pulpwood with processors at the landing and then loading with a loader. Usability of Arena 9 in modeling forest harvesting operations was concluded as acceptable, but required detailed background logic inclusion

The economic potential of semi-automated tele-extraction of roundwood in Sweden

The mechanization of roundwood harvesting in Sweden has historically cut costs rapidly. However, machinery and work methods have conceptually stayed the same since the introduction of the single-grip harvester. Current trends indicate that the next major wave of development will be based on automation, and that teleoperation is a step in this direction. This study aims to evaluate the economic potential of semi-automated tele-extraction compared to standard forwarding within the Nordic CTL two-machine harvesting system. The initial scenario examined autonomous terrain transportation with teleoperation during loading and unloading. A Discrete Event Simulation was implemented in the AnyLogic software. Input data included 1100 Swedish harvest sites, with in total 1.6 million m(3) and extraction distances from 20 to 1500 m. Scenarios with different numbers of teleoperators for a fleet of ten forwarders were tested. The optimum number of operators was seven per ten forwarders, resulting in a potential extraction cost reduction of 7% compared to standard forwarding. Extraction distances further than 500 m enabled use of five or six teleoperators, resulting in potential cost reductions of up to 15%. The highest potential cost reductions were linked to increased time used for autonomous driving, increasing the teleoperator availability for other machines. The simulation model provides a framework for further evaluation of new scenarios of automation and teleoperation of forwarders

Proceedings of the OSCAR Workshop: Mechanized and efficient silviculture : November 25–26, 2015 Natural Resources Institute Finland, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Finland

The workshop took place at Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Suonenjoki Research Unit November 25 – 26, 2015. Workshop was arranged as a joint arrangement between Luke and Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava" and the main sponsor was Nordic Forest Research (SNS) / Operating Systems for Centre of Advanced Research (OSCAR2, 2011-2015). This OSCAR Workshop was also promoted by IUFRO Research Group 3.02.00 Stand establishment and treatment. Altogether 28 participants from Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden participated in the workshop. The objective of the workshop was to present ongoing research concerning mechanized silviculture in Nordic and Baltic countries and to discuss future research needs. State of art reports about mechanized silviculture from Sweden and Finland were presented and discussed. In the Swedish review, inverting; interface from nursery to planting machine; feeding of seedlings in planting device; identification of plantings spots and obstacles as well as planting device development without compactation were covered. In the Finnish part, mechanized planting and mechanized young stand management were discussed. Finally, the differences between the Swedish and Finnish Scots pine management cultures were discussed. The ongoing research projects concerning forest regeneration, drainage and management of young stands in Baltic countries were presented and discussed. The overview about the management of Latvia’s state forests started the session following the state of the art review of the ongoing research activities in mechanization of silviculture in Latvia. Next, the work productivity of wood ash forest fertilization was discovered. Forest regeneration and young stand management in Estonia followed. In conclusion, SeedPAD, as a new and efficient Scots pine regeneration method in Northern Sweden, was viewed. New ways of young stand management were presented and discussed. At first, the productivity of Vimek harvester and forwarder were scrutinized. Next, Fixteri FX15a small-tree bundlers work processes and productivity in early pine dominated thinnings were considered following an overview of the evolution of innovative systems for small diameter tree harvest in Sweden. In the end, biocontrol methods against hardwood sprouting using Chondrostereum purpureum were covered. In the workshop the need for further Nordic-Baltic co-operation was strongly emphasized. Cooperation in research activities as well as in dissemination of new research findings and in deployment of new innovation were widely discussed. Workshop included also a short field excursion where the PCT operation with “Tehojätkä” (Usewood Forest Master) and young stands treated with Naarva uprooter were demonstrated.201