Stratégies de gestion d’énergie pour véhicules électriques et hybride avec systèmes hybride de stockage d’énergie

Les véhicules électriques et hybrides font partie des éléments clés pour résoudre les problèmes de réchauffement de la planète et d'épuisement des ressources en combustibles fossiles dans le domaine du transporte. En raison des limites des différents systèmes de stockage et de conversion d’énergie en termes de puissance et d'énergie, les hybridations sont intéressantes pour les véhicules électriques (VE). Dans cette thèse, deux hybridations typiques sont étudiées • un sous-système de stockage d'énergie hybride combinant des batteries et des supercondensateurs (SC) ; • et un sous-système de traction hybride parallèle combinant moteur à combustion interne et entraînement électrique. Ces sources d'énergie et ces conversions combinées doivent être gérées dans le cadre de stratégies de gestion de l'énergie (SGE). Parmi celles-ci, les méthodes basées sur l'optimisation présentent un intérêt en raison de leur approche systématique et de leurs performances élevées. Néanmoins, ces méthodes sont souvent compliquées et demandent beaucoup de temps de calcul, ce qui peut être difficile à réaliser dans des applications réelles. L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer des SGE simples mais efficaces basées sur l'optimisation en temps réel pour un VE et un camion à traction hybride parallèle alimentés par des batteries et des SC (système de stockage hybride). Les complexités du système étudié sont réduites en utilisant la représentation macroscopique énergétique (REM). La REM permet de réaliser des modèles réduits pour la gestion de l'énergie au niveau de la supervision. La théorie du contrôle optimal est ensuite appliquée à ces modèles réduits pour réaliser des SGE en temps réel. Ces stratégies sont basées sur des réductions de modèle appropriées, mais elles sont systématiques et performantes. Les performances des SGE proposées sont vérifiées en simulation par comparaison avec l’optimum théorique (programmation dynamique). De plus, les capacités en temps réel des SGE développées sont validées via des expériences en « hardware-in-the-loop » à puissances réduites. Les résultats confirment les avantages des stratégies proposées développées par l'approche unifiée de la thèse.Abstract: Electric and hybrid vehicles are among the keys to solve the problems of global warming and exhausted fossil fuel resources in transportation sector. Due to the limits of energy sources and energy converters in terms of power and energy, hybridizations are of interest for future electrified vehicles. Two typical hybridizations are studied in this thesis: • hybrid energy storage subsystem combining batteries and supercapacitors (SCs); and • hybrid traction subsystem combining internal combustion engine and electric drive. Such combined energy sources and converters must be handled by energy management strategies (EMSs). In which, optimization-based methods are of interest due to their high performance. Nonetheless, these methods are often complicated and computation consuming which can be difficult to be realized in real-world applications. The objective of this thesis is to develop simple but effective real-time optimization-based EMSs for an electric car and a parallel hybrid truck supplied by batteries and SCs. The complexities of the studied system are tackled by using Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR) which helps to conduct reduced models for energy management at the supervisory level. Optimal control theory is then applied to these reduced models to accomplish real-time EMSs. These strategies are simple due to the suitable model reductions but systematic and high-performance due to the optimization-based methods. The performances of the proposed strategies are verified via simulations by comparing with off-line optimal benchmark deduced by dynamic programming. Moreover, real-time capabilities of these novel EMSs are validated via experiments by using reduced-scale power hardware-in-the-loop simulation. The results confirm the advantages of the proposed strategies developed by the unified approach in the thesis

Study of the Potential of Electrified Powertrains with Dual-Fuel Combustion to Achieve the 2025 Emissions Targets in Heavy-Duty Applications

[ES] El transporte de personas, así como de carga ha evolucionado y crecido tremendamente en los últimos años. El desarrollo tecnológico debió ser adaptado a las diferentes medidas gubernamentales en términos de control de emisiones contaminantes. Desde el acuerdo de Paris en 2015 para mantener el crecimiento de la temperatura global por debajo de 1.5oC, se han impuesto también límites para las emisiones de CO2 por parte de vehículos de carretera. Para el sector del transporte pesado, se han impuesto límites de flota de 15% para 2025 y 30% para 2030 de reducción del CO2 con respecto a 2019. Por lo tanto, esta doble restricción de muy bajos niveles de emisiones contaminantes, así como de gases de efecto invernadero hacen que el sector del transporte este ante un gran desafío tecnológico. En 2022, el transporte de carga tiene un 99% de vehículos propulsados a motor de combustión interna con Diesel como combustible y sin ningún tipo de ayuda eléctrica en el sistema de propulsión. Los límites de emisiones contaminantes como Euro 6 son alcanzados con complejos sistemas de postratamiento que además agregan el consumo de Urea. Trabajos previos en la bibliografía, así como sistemas prototipo han demostrado que es posible alcanzar los objetivos de emisiones contaminantes con métodos avanzados de control de la combustión y así disminuyendo la complejidad del post tratamiento en la salida de gases. Con mayor éxito, el concepto de Reactivity Controlled Combustion Ignition puede alcanzar valores por debajo de Euro 6 con eficiencia similar a la combustión de Diesel. Sin embargo, no soluciona los problemas de emisiones de CO2. Por otro lado, en vehículos de pasajeros fue demostrado con suceso la aplicación de motores eléctricos en el sistema de propulsión para mejorar la eficiencia global del vehículo. El caso extremo son los vehículos puramente electicos donde se alcanza eficiencias por arriba del 70% contra 35% de los vehículos no electrificados. Sin embargo, limitaciones de autonomía, tiempo de carga y la no clara reducción global de la contaminación debido a las emisiones de la energía de la red eléctrica y la contaminación de las baterías de ion-litio hacen que este sistema de propulsión este bajo discusión. Para los vehículos con algún grado de electrificación, las emisiones de gases contaminantes siguen siendo un problema como para el caso no electrificado. Por lo tanto, esta tesis doctoral aborda el problema de emisiones contaminantes, así como de CO2 combinado modos avanzados de combustión con sistemas de propulsión electrificado. La aplicación de estas tecnologías se centra en el sector del transporte de carretera pesado. En particular, un camión de 18 toneladas de carga máxima que originalmente en 2022 equipa un motor seis cilindros de 8 litros con combustión convencional Diesel. El presente trabajo utiliza herramientas experimentales como son medidas en banco motor, así como en carretera para alimentar y validar modelos numéricos de motor, sistema de postratamiento, así como de vehículo. Este último es el punto central del trabajo ya que permite abordar sistemas como el mild hybrid, full hybrid y plug-in hybrid. Calibración de motor experimental dedicada a sistemas de propulsión hibrido es presentada con combustibles sintéticos y/o para llegar a los límites de Euro 7.[CA] El transport de persones, així com de càrrega ha evolucionat i crescut tremendament en els últims anys. El desenvolupament tecnològic degué ser adaptat a les diferents mesures governamentals en termes de control d'emissions contaminants. Des de l'acord de Paris en 2015 per a mantindre el creixement de la temperatura global per davall de 1.5oC, s'han imposat també límits per a les emissions de CO¿ per part de vehicles de carretera. Per al sector del transport pesat, s'han imposat limites de flota de 15% per a 2025 i 30% per a 2030 de reducció del CO¿ respecte a 2019. Per tant, aquesta doble restricció de molt baixos nivells d'emissions contaminants, així com de gasos d'efecte d'hivernacle fan que el sector del transport aquest davant un gran desafiament tecnològic. En 2022, el transport de càrrega té un 99% de vehicles propulsats a motor de combustió interna amb Dièsel com a combustible i sense cap mena d'ajuda elèctrica en el sistema de propulsió. Els limites d'emissions contaminants com a Euro 6 són aconseguits amb complexos sistemes de posttractament que a més agreguen el consum d'Urea. Treballs previs en la bibliografia, així com sistemes prototip han demostrat que és possible aconseguir els objectius d'emissions contaminants amb mètodes avançats de control de la combustió i així disminuint la complexitat del post tractament en l'eixida de gasos. Amb major èxit, el concepte de Reactivity Controlled Combustion Ignition pot aconseguir valors per davall d'Euro 6 amb eficiència similar a la combustió de Dièsel. No obstant això, no soluciona els problemes d'emissions de CO¿. D'altra banda, en vehicles de passatgers va ser demostrat amb succés l'aplicació de motors elèctrics en el sistema de propulsió per a millorar l'eficiència global del vehicle. El cas extrem són els vehicles purament electicos on s'aconsegueix eficiències per dalt del 70% contra 35% dels vehicles no electrificats. No obstant això, limitacions d'autonomia, temps de càrrega i la no clara reducció global de la contaminació a causa de les emissions de l'energia de la xarxa elèctrica i la contaminació de les bateries d'ió-liti fan que aquest sistema de propulsió aquest baix discussió. Per als vehicles amb algun grau d'electrificació, les emissions de gasos contaminants continuen sent un problema com per al cas no electrificat. Per tant, aquesta tesi doctoral aborda el problema d'emissions contaminants, així com de CO¿ combinat maneres avançades de combustió amb sistemes de propulsió electrificat. L'aplicació d'aquestes tecnologies se centra en el sector del transport de carretera pesat. En particular, un camió de 18 tones de càrrega màxima que originalment en 2022 equipa un motor sis cilindres de 8 litres amb combustió convencional Dièsel. El present treball utilitza eines experimentals com són mesures en banc motor, així com en carretera per a alimentar i validar models numèrics de motor, sistema de posttractament, així com de vehicle. Est ultime és el punt central del treball ja que permet abordar sistemes com el mild hybrid, full *hybrid i plug-in hybrid. Calibratge de motor experimental dedicada a sistemes de propulsió hibride és presentada amb combustibles sintètics i/o per a arribar als límits d'Euro 7.[EN] The transport of people, as well as cargo, has evolved and grown tremendously over the recent years. Technological development had to be adapted to the different government measures for controlling polluting emissions. Since the Paris agreement in 2015 limits have also been imposed on the CO2 emissions from road vehicles to keep global temperature growth below 1.5oC. For the heavy transport sector, fleet limits of 15% for 2025 and 30% for 2030 CO2 reduction have been introduced with respect to the limits of 2019. Therefore, the current restriction of very low levels of polluting emissions, as well as greenhouse gases, makes the transport sector face a great technological challenge. In 2021, 99% of freight transport was powered by an internal combustion engine with Diesel as fuel and without any type of electrical assistance in the propulsion system. Moreover, polluting emission limits such as the Euro 6 are achieved with complex post-treatment systems that also add to the consumption of Urea. Previous research and prototype systems have shown that it is possible to achieve polluting emission targets with advanced combustion control methods, thus reducing the complexity of post-treatment in the exhaust gas. With greater success, the concept of Reactivity Controlled Combustion Ignition can reach values below the Euro 6 with similar efficiency to Diesel combustion. Unfortunately, it does not solve the CO2 emission problems. On the other hand, in passenger vehicles, the application of electric motors in the propulsion system has been shown to successfully improve the overall efficiency of the vehicle. The extreme case is the purely electric vehicles, where efficiencies above 70% are achieved against 35% of the non-electrified vehicles. However, limitations of vehicle range, charging time, payload reduction and an unclear overall reduction in greenhouse emissions bring this propulsion system under discussion. For vehicles with some degree of electrification, polluting gas emissions continue to be a problem as for the non-electrified case. Therefore, this doctoral Thesis addresses the problem of polluting emissions and CO2 combined with advanced modes of combustion with electrified propulsion systems. The application of these technologies focuses on the heavy road transport sector. In particular, an 18-ton maximum load truck that originally was equipped with an 8-liter six-cylinder engine with conventional Diesel combustion. The present work uses experimental tools such as measurements on the engine bench as well as on the road to feed and validate numerical models of the engine, after-treatment system, and the vehicle. The latter is the central point of the work since it allows addressing systems such as mild hybrid, full hybrid, and plug-in hybrid. Experimental engine calibration dedicated to hybrid propulsion systems is presented with synthetic fuels in order to reach the limits of the Euro 7.This Doctoral Thesis has been partially supported by the Universitat Politècnica de València through the predoctoral contract of the author (Subprograma 2), which is included within the framework of Programa de Apoyo para la Investigación y Desarrollo (PAID)Martínez Boggio, SD. (2022). Study of the Potential of Electrified Powertrains with Dual-Fuel Combustion to Achieve the 2025 Emissions Targets in Heavy-Duty Applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/18883

Influence of a CVT on the fuel consumption of a parallel medium-duty electric hybrid truck

Hybrid electric vehicles are being developed to reduce the pollutant emissions and the fossil-fuel consumption of transportation. Innovative technologies are inserted to improve the performance of hybrid vehicles, including trucks and buses. Thereby, trends towards gear shifting automation motivate the research on replacing a discrete conventional Automated Manual Transmission (AMT) with a Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT). Theoretically, such a transmission enables better operation points of the thermal engine, and therefore a reduction of its fuel consumption and emissions. However, the conventional (hydraulic actuated) CVT efficiency during quasi-stationary operation is typically lower than the efficiency of a classical discrete gearbox, which leads to higher fuel consumption. This paper is focused on the study of the interests of a CVT for a medium-duty Hybrid Electric Truck (HET). The complete model and control of CVT-based and AMT-based HET are described in a unified way using Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR). These models are transformed to backward-models to be computed by the Dynamic Programming Method (DPM). Such a method leads to define the (off-line) optimal energy management strategies for a fair comparison of both hybrid trucks. For the studied driving cycle, the hybridization allows a fuel saving of 10% with an AMT and 3% with a CVT. The fuel consumption is higher for the CVT-based HET in comparison with the AMT-based HET due to the lowest efficiency of the CVT (85%) compared to the AMT (around 92%). However, future (on-demand) CVTs with an increased efficiency could be a solution of interest to reduce the fuel consumption of such applications. The developed method can be used to test these new CVTs, other vehicles or other driving cycles

A WOA-based optimization approach for task scheduling in cloud Computing systems

Task scheduling in cloud computing can directly affect the resource usage and operational cost of a system. To improve the efficiency of task executions in a cloud, various metaheuristic algorithms, as well as their variations, have been proposed to optimize the scheduling. In this work, for the first time, we apply the latest metaheuristics WOA (the whale optimization algorithm) for cloud task scheduling with a multiobjective optimization model, aiming at improving the performance of a cloud system with given computing resources. On that basis, we propose an advanced approach called IWC (Improved WOA for Cloud task scheduling) to further improve the optimal solution search capability of the WOA-based method. We present the detailed implementation of IWC and our simulation-based experiments show that the proposed IWC has better convergence speed and accuracy in searching for the optimal task scheduling plans, compared to the current metaheuristic algorithms. Moreover, it can also achieve better performance on system resource utilization, in the presence of both small and large-scale tasks

Sustainable seabed mining: guidelines and a new concept for Atlantis II Deep

The feasibility of exploiting seabed resources is subject to the engineering solutions, and economic prospects. Due to rising metal prices, predicted mineral scarcities and unequal allocations of resources in the world, vast research programmes on the exploration and exploitation of seabed minerals are presented in 1970s. Very few studies have been published after the 1980s, when predictions were not fulfilled. The attention grew back in the last decade with marine mineral mining being in research and commercial focus again and the first seabed mining license for massive sulphides being granted in Papua New Guinea’s Exclusive Economic Zone.Research on seabed exploitation and seabed mining is a complex transdisciplinary field that demands for further attention and development. Since the field links engineering, economics, environmental, legal and supply chain research, it demands for research from a systems point of view. This implies the application of a holistic sustainability framework of to analyse the feasibility of engineering systems. The research at hand aims to close this gap by developing such a framework and providing a review of seabed resources. Based on this review it identifies a significant potential for massive sulphides in inactive hydrothermal vents and sediments to solve global resource scarcities. The research aims to provide background on seabed exploitation and to apply a holistic systems engineering approach to develop general guidelines for sustainable seabed mining of polymetallic sulphides and a new concept and solutions for the Atlantis II Deep deposit in the Red Sea.The research methodology will start with acquiring a broader academic and industrial view on sustainable seabed mining through an online survey and expert interviews on seabed mining. In addition, the Nautilus Minerals case is reviewed for lessons learned and identification of challenges. Thereafter, a new concept for Atlantis II Deep is developed that based on a site specific assessment.The research undertaken in this study provides a new perspective regarding sustainable seabed mining. The main contributions of this research are the development of extensive guidelines for key issues in sustainable seabed mining as well as a new concept for seabed mining involving engineering systems, environmental risk mitigation, economic feasibility, logistics and legal aspects

Torque Allocation of Hybrid Electric Trucks for Drivability and Transient Emissions Reduction

This paper aims at investigating powertrain behaviour, especially in transient dynamic responses, using a nonlinear truck vehicle dynamic model with a parallel hybrid configuration. A power split control was designed to achieve the desired drivability performance, with a focus on NOx emissions. The controller was characterized by high-level model-based logic used to elaborate the total powertrain torque required, and a low-level allocation strategy for splitting power between the engine and the electric motor. The final task was to enhance vehicle drivability based on driver requests, with the goal of reducing-in a hybrid configuration-transient diesel engine emissions when compared to a conventional pure thermal engine powertrain. Different parameters were investigated for the assessment of powertrain performance, in terms of external input disturbance rejection and NOx emissions reduction. The investigation of torque allocation performance was limited to the simulation of a Tip-in manoeuvre, which showed a satisfying trade-off between vehicle drivability and transient emissions

Ford of Europe, 1967-2003

The analysis of economic and financial results of Ford of Europe since the creation of this coordination structure in 1967 allows us to distinguish two periods. In a first time, until the end of the eighties, Ford took a strong advantage from the successful integration of its European activities. In a second time, since 1990, the automaker got some reversal of fortune on the old continent. Explanatory factors of that general evolution are searched in the history of the Ford of Europe’s governance, of its products strategies, and of its management of industrial resources from 1967 to 1993. We defend the idea that after the exhaustion of the favourable dynamic of its continental integration, Ford of Europe has been experiencing an identity crisis which was linked to a radical change of its operational context resulting from the globalisation strategies of Ford Motor Company.Ford, Automobile Industry, Europe, Multinational Firms, Regional Integration, Globalisation Strategies

The Development of Motor Tandem Axle Module in Series Hybrid Commercial Vehicles

The growing issues of energy shortage and the environmental crisis have resulted in new challenges for the automotive industry. Conventional commercial vehicles such as refuse trucks and delivery vehicles consume significantly more energy than other on-road vehicles and emit more emissions. It is important to make these vehicles more fuel efficient and environmentally friendly. Hybrid power-trains provide a good solution for commercial vehicles because they not only provide optimum dynamic properties but also substantially reduce emissions. For most commercial vehicle power-trains, the internal combustion engine (ICE) is the only power source that provides power to the drive-line. The emission reduction faces a limit since a high-powered engine is required to meet the dynamic properties of those heavy-duty vehicles. Also, the high-powered engine cannot avoid operating in low efficient areas due to the fact that these vehicles continually drive at low speeds on designated city routes. However, hybrid power-trains allow commercial vehicles to select lower powered engines because they are equipped with multi-power sources to supply torque together to the drive-line. Therefore, hybrid power-trains are a natural fit for commercial vehicles. For this reason, an alternative series hybrid drive-train system, which contains an electric tandem axle module, has been designed for those heavy-duty commercial vehicles like city transits and refuse trucks. In order to prove the theoretical efficiency and practicability of this application, the modeling methodology for specification of system architectures and hybrid drive-train control strategies will be provided in this paper with the demonstration of simulation methods and results

Electric Vehicle Efficient Power and Propulsion Systems

Vehicle electrification has been identified as one of the main technology trends in this second decade of the 21st century. Nearly 10% of global car sales in 2021 were electric, and this figure would be 50% by 2030 to reduce the oil import dependency and transport emissions in line with countries’ climate goals. This book addresses the efficient power and propulsion systems which cover essential topics for research and development on EVs, HEVs and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), including: Energy storage systems (battery, fuel cell, supercapacitors, and their hybrid systems); Power electronics devices and converters; Electric machine drive control, optimization, and design; Energy system advanced management methods Primarily intended for professionals and advanced students who are working on EV/HEV/FCEV power and propulsion systems, this edited book surveys state of the art novel control/optimization techniques for different components, as well as for vehicle as a whole system. New readers may also find valuable information on the structure and methodologies in such an interdisciplinary field. Contributed by experienced authors from different research laboratory around the world, these 11 chapters provide balanced materials from theorical background to methodologies and practical implementation to deal with various issues of this challenging technology. This reprint encourages researchers working in this field to stay actualized on the latest developments on electric vehicle efficient power and propulsion systems, for road and rail, both manned and unmanned vehicles