The effects of physical activity on driving ability in older adults

Doutoramento em Motricidade Humana na especialidade de Ciências da MotricidadeThe research described in this thesis aimed to examine the association between physical activity and driving ability in older drivers. Experimental and observational studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of physical activity both in driving-related abilities and on-the-road driving performance. The investigation was grounded mainly in an information processing approach. Visual attention showed a marked decline with aging. Physical activity levels were positively correlated with visual attention measures, namely processing speed and divided attention. Driving-related abilities and on-the-road driving tests performance were enhanced with an intervention that used a type of exercise that intended to simultaneously mobilize perceptual, cognitive, and physical abilities. Improvements resulting from the exercise intervention took place on several measures of visual attention, behavioral speed, and multitask processing. Positive transfer of learning from the exercise program to the driving task was obtained with relatively short time periods of intervention (two to three months). The type of activities to be included in the exercise programs for older drivers should try to target the same cognitive processes that are required in driving. Results also indicated that the practice of sports on a regular basis for several years has the potential to benefit driving performance. Particularly, tennis playing was associated with better speed of behavior during driving than running. Sports that are more challenging in attentional skills and whose performance is very dependent on the speed at which information is processed, may have a positive influence in several aspects of the driving task. The role of physical activity for older adults should not be restricted to the promotion of physical fitness, but should also be considered as a means to enhance cognitive functioning. The type of physical activity seems to be an important mediator of such positive effects. Literature reviewed about the effects of training and differential experience on the brain and behavior also supports this potential role of physical activity.O trabalho apresentado nesta dissertação teve como principal objectivo o estudo da associação entre a prática de actividade física e a capacidade de condução automóvel em pessoas idosas. Estudos experimentais e observacionais foram efectuados para investigar os efeitos da prática de actividade física em capacidades consideradas importantes para conduzir e no desempenho da condução em estrada. A investigação efectuada teve na psicologia cognitiva o seu quadro teórico de referência. Foi encontrado um declínio acentuado da atenção visual com o envelhecimento. Foi também estabelecida uma correlação positiva entre os níveis de actividade física e medidas de atenção visual, designadamente de velocidade de processamento e atenção dividida. Diversas capacidades importantes para conduzir e o desempenho em testes de condução em estrada, beneficiaram da participação num programa exercício planeado para mobilizar simultaneamente capacidades físicas, perceptivas e cognitivas. As melhorias verificaram-se em diversas medidas de atenção visual, velocidade comportamental e no processamento de múltiplas tarefas. Foi possível obter um transfer positivo do programa de exercício para a capacidade de conduzir com relativamente pouco tempo de intervenção (2 a 3 meses). Concluiu-se que o tipo de tarefas incluídas em programas de exercício para condutores idosos deve procurar mobilizar as mesmas funções cognitivas que são requeridas durante a condução. A prática regular de desporto pode influenciar positivamente a capacidade de conduzir de pessoas idosas. A prática de ténis foi associada a melhores resultados em tarefas de velocidade comportamental durante a condução em estrada do que a prática de corrida de longas distâncias. Os resultados sugerem que os desportos mais exigentes em processos atencionais e cuja performance depende muito da velocidade com que a informação é processada, poderão ter maior influência na realização da tarefa de condução. O papel da actividade física para pessoas idosas não deve ser apenas restringido à promoção da aptidão física, mas deve ser considerado também como forma de melhorar o funcionamento cognitivo. O tipo de actividade física parece ser um importante mediador nesta associação. A revisão de literatura efectuada sobre os efeitos de programas de treino e da experiência diferencial sobre o cérebro, suporta este papel potencialmente positivo da actividade física.FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologi

A Field Study Assessing Driving Performance, Visual Attention, Heart Rate and Subjective Ratings in Response to Two Types of Cognitive Workload

In an on-road experiment, driving performance, visual attention, heart rate and subjective ratings of workload were evaluated in response to a working memory (n-back) and a visual-spatial (clock) task. Subjective workload ratings for the two types of tasks did not statistically differ, suggesting a similar level of overall workload. Gaze concentration and heart rate showed significant changes relative to single task driving during the extra tasks and the magnitude of change was similar for both, while driving performance measures were not sensitive to the increase in workload. The results suggest high sensitivity of both gaze dispersion and heart rate as measures of workload across these two different types of cognitive demand

Measuring cognitive load and cognition: metrics for technology-enhanced learning

This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the last decade to summarise the different kinds of measures that have been used to explore cognitive load and critiques the strengths and limitations of those focussed on the development of direct empirical approaches. Over the last 40 years, cognitive load theory has become established as one of the most successful and influential theoretical explanations of cognitive processing during learning. Despite this success, attempts to obtain direct objective measures of the theory's central theoretical construct – cognitive load – have proved elusive. This obstacle represents the most significant outstanding challenge for successfully embedding the theoretical and experimental work on cognitive load in empirical data from authentic learning situations. Progress to date on the theoretical and practical approaches to cognitive load are discussed along with the influences of individual differences on cognitive load in order to assess the prospects for the development and application of direct empirical measures of cognitive load especially in technology-rich contexts

An Initial Assessment of the Significance of Task Pacing on Self-Report and Physiological Measures of Workload While Driving

In block A of a simulator study, a sample of 38 drivers showed a stepwise increase in heart rate and skin conductance level (SCL) from single task driving and across 3 levels of an auditory presentation – verbal response dual task (n-back), replicating findings from on-road research. Subjective ratings showed a similar stepwise increase, establishing concurrent validity of the physiological indices as measures of workload. In block B, varying the inter-stimulus interval in the intermediate 1-back level of the task resulted in a pattern across self-report workload ratings, heart rate, and SCL suggesting that task pacing may influence effective workload. Further consideration of the impact of task pacing in auditoryverbal in-vehicle applications is indicated

Hysteresis Effects In Driving

This dissertation presents two studies examining the interaction between workload history and driver mental workload. The first experiment focuses on testing for the presence of a hysteresis effect in the driving task. The second experiment examines the proposition that cueing impending periods of higher task demand can reduce the impact of any such potential hysteresis effects. Thirty-two licensed drivers served as participants and all served in both studies. Using the directions provided by a Heads-Up-Display navigation system, participants followed a pre-set route in the simulated environment. At specified points within the drive, the navigation system would purposefully fail which required drivers to relay a ten digit alphanumeric error code to a remote operator in order to reset the system. Results indicated that this increase in task demand from the navigation system\u27s failure leads to a significant increase in perceived mental workload as compared to pre-failure periods. This increase in driver mental workload was not significantly reduced by the time the drive ended, indicating the presence of a hysteresis effect. In the second experiment, the navigation system provided a completely reliable visual warning before failure. Results indicate that cueing had neither an effect on perceived mental workload, nor any ameliorating effect on the hysteretic type effect seen in mental workload recovery. The conclusion of these findings being that the overall safety and efficiency of the surface transportation system would likely improve by designs which accommodate the periods immediately following a reduction in stress. Whether from leaving high demand areas such as work zones or in the period immediately after using a in-car information device such as a GPS or a cell phone, these post-high workload periods are associated with increased variability in driver inputs and levels of mental workload

The effects of text messaging on memory recall in college students

Technology is constantly changing, and has enabled communication to be readily available everywhere, to everyone, including students in classrooms. Most devices are portable, capable of talking, texting, and surfing the internet. Many researchers have questioned the impact technology has on individuals, making multitasking a popular research area in cognitive psychology today. Simulated environments have been created and used to examine an individual’s performance while using a cell phone as they engage in everyday activities such as driving or walking. Results from the simulated environments have found that when individuals perform a primary task while conversing on a cell phone, they have lower performance on the primary task (Charlton, 2009). The majority of research on multitasking has examined how cell phone use affects driving performance. Because text messaging is a popular form of communication among young adults, an emerging area of multitasking research is now examining the effects of cell phones in learning environments. The purpose of the current study is to examine the various components of text messaging and determine which component is the most distracting for college students. Participants were randomly assigned to the control group, the receiving group, or the combined sending and receiving group. The group the participant was randomly assigned to determined their task with the cell phone during the video. Each participant watched a 10 minute video on memory. After the video ended, participants completed the posttest about the video. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if there was an overall difference between group’s posttest scores. Results indicated a significant difference in posttest scores for the three groups. Results indicated the mean score for the control group was significantly different from the receiving group and the combined group. The combined group and receiving group did not differ significantly from one another. An ANOVA was used to determine the overall difference between groups on target questions. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups memory recall for the target questions. Pearson product moment correlation was used to investigate the relationships between participant’s perceived multitasking ability and their posttest score. There was a small negative correlation between the two variables, with high levels of individual beliefs about their ability to multitask associated with lower scores on the posttest. These findings go along with the threaded cognition theory, combining a novel task with a well learned task consumes a significant amount of cognitive resources and interferes with learning. The implications of the results and areas of future research are discussed

Exploring the relationship between perceptual-cognitive function and driver safety : prediction and transfer

La conduite automobile continue d'être le mode de transport dominant dans le monde et le nombre de véhicules sur la route ne devrait qu’augmenter au cours des prochaines décennies. Dans un même temps, l'évolution démographique qui se produit actuellement dans le monde industrialisé implique que la proportion de conducteurs âgés sur la route devrait augmenter considérablement. L'âge s'accompagne de changements de grande envergure dans les systèmes physiques, sensoriels et cognitifs, entraînant des changements fonctionnels qui peuvent être subtils ou profonds. Nous commençons seulement à comprendre comment la variabilité normale et pathologique de ces mesures fonctionnelles affecte les performances de conduite et la sécurité. Le développement d'un outil fiable et fondé sur des données probantes pour distinguer les conducteurs prudents des conducteurs dangereux continue d'être une préoccupation majeure pour les chercheurs en gérontologie, en accidentologie et en clinique. L'accumulation de preuves suggère maintenant qu'il existe un lien important entre des capacités cognitives spécifiques telles que la vitesse de traitement de l’information et l'attention, et les performances de conduite. Continuer à explorer cette relation pour peut-être un jour développer un tel outil est une entreprise importante. Une autre implication de la relation entre les capacités cognitives et les performances de conduite est que les interventions conçues pour les améliorer ou les maintenir pourraient éventuellement améliorer ou maintenir la sécurité et le confort de conduite des individus à court et à long terme. L'objectif de cette thèse est triple. Premièrement, il développe et valide une nouvelle méthodologie pour évaluer les performances de conduite des jeunes adultes et des adultes plus âgés à l'aide de scénarios de simulation de conduite personnalisés. Deuxièmement, elle pousse l'état de nos connaissances sur la façon dont les capacités cognitives sont liées à la performance de conduite en démontrant que la performance sur un test intégratif d'attention dynamique et de vitesse de traitement - c'est-à-dire le suivi d'objets multiples en 3D (3D-MOT) - prédit les performances des conducteurs de différents groupes d'âge. Enfin, elle offre des preuves suggérant que la formation 3D-MOT améliore réellement la fonction attentionnelle et la vitesse de traitement en transférant la performance sur un test indépendant de ces capacités et, finalement, que cette amélioration pourrait se traduire par une amélioration des performances de conduite.Driving continues to be the world’s dominant form of transportation and the number of vehicles on the road is only projected to increase in the coming decades. At the same time, the demographic shift currently occurring in the industrialized world implies that the proportion of older adult drivers on the road is set to increase substantially. With age comes wide-ranging changes in physical, sensory and cognitive systems resulting in functional changes that can be subtle or profound. We are only beginning to understand how both normal and pathological variability in these functional measures affect driving performance and safety. Developing a reliable, evidence-based tool to distinguish safe from unsafe drivers continues to be a major preoccupation for gerontology, accidentology, and clinical researchers alike. Accumulating evidence now suggests that there is an important link between specific cognitive abilities such as speed-of-processing, attention, and driving performance. Continuing to explore this relationship in order to perhaps one day develop such a tool is an important endeavour. Another implication of the relationship between cognitive abilities and driving performance is that interventions designed to improve or sustain these might conceivably enhance or maintain individuals’ driving safety and comfort in the short- and long-term. The purpose of this thesis is threefold. First, it develops and validates a novel methodology for assessing both young adult and older adult driving performance using custom driving simulator scenarios. Second, it pushes the state of our knowledge of how cognitive abilities relate to driving performance by demonstrating that performance on an integrative test of dynamic attention and speed-of-processing—i.e., 3-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT)— predicts how drivers of different age groups perform. Finally, it offers evidence to suggest that training 3D-MOT actually enhances attentional function and speed-of-processing by transferring to performance on an unrelated test of these abilities and, ultimately, that this improvement might translate to improved driving performance

위험 상황 하 운전자 경험에 따른 스트레스 수준 및 주의 능력 차이 비교

학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 인문대학 협동과정 인지과학전공, 2021. 2. 윤명환.The purpose of this study is to determine the differences in stress-level and attentional functions between experienced and non-experienced drivers during intersection-related hazard situations. A simulation experiment was conducted to twenty-one licensed drivers (15 males and 6 females, mean age 27.71 ± 3.62) which were categorized into two groups, experienced and novice, based on the frequency and length of their driving experience. The participants were asked to drive on the same lane at a constant speed for 9 randomized trials with three different conditions (no hazard, low hazard, high hazard). ECG, GSR and eye-tracking data were collected throughout the whole session and a subjective questionnaire measuring perceived stress and attention load was administered after every trial. Mixed-ANOVA showed significant variations in driving performance across conditions (p < 0.001 for both lane and speed deviation), but not in between groups. Similarly, GSR metrics (SCR, Sum of Amplitudes, Phasic Max) showed a progressive increase in stress from hazard conditions 1 to 3, but no differences were found between groups. In contrast, ECG measures (STD RR, RMSSD, HF) revealed that experienced drivers exhibited greater stress during intersection-related hazard situations than novices. In terms of attention, both AOI-based and non-AOI-based measures (fixation count, mean fixation duration, time-to-first-fixation and horizontal dispersion) demonstrate significant differences in attention functions across conditions, but group effects were only evident in time-to-first fixation metrics. It was revealed that experienced drivers were faster to attend to the hazard stimulus than novices. In addition, an interaction was also found between experience and condition in mean fixation duration. Experienced drivers showed proportional attention allocation to both the primary task and hazard stimulus during high hazard situations than novice drivers. The overall result of the psychophysiological measures was further affirmed by the results from the subjective questionnaire whereby experienced drivers exhibited more changes in stress-level and attention load as the condition changed. The results suggest that experienced drivers are more sensitive, in terms of stress and attention functions, to changes in driving conditions than novices. The results of this study may be applied in designing more effective training modules and driver support systems that would help drivers specifically during intersection-related hazard situations.본 연구의 목적은 교차로와 관련된 위험 상황 하에서 운전 경험의 수준이 다른 운전자 간 스트레스 수준과 주의 능력의 차이를 확인하는 것이다. 운전 빈도 및 기간에 따라 숙련된 운전자와 미숙한 운전자의 두 그룹으로 분류된 운전면허 자격을 보유한 21명의 운전자들 (남성 15명, 여성 6명, 평균 27.71 ± 3.62세)을 대상으로 차량 시뮬레이터를 활용한 실험이 수행되었다. 실험참여자들은 세 가지 위험 상황 조건(무위험, 저위험, 고위험)이 임의로 제시되는 환경에서 동일 차선을 유지하여 정속 주행하는 과업을 9회 반복 수행하였다. 과업이 수행되는 동안 ECG, GSR, 그리고 시선 추적 데이터가 수집되었고, 과업 수행 종료 후 주관적 설문지를 활용하여 인지된 스트레스 및 주의 부하가 측정되었다. Mixed-ANOVA 수행 결과, 운전 수행도는 차선 이탈 및 속도 이탈 측면에서 위험 상황 조건 별 유의한 차이가 있었으나(p < 0.001), 운전 경험 그룹 간의 차이는 없었다. 또한, GSR 척도(SCR, Sum of Amplitudes, Phasic Max)는 위험 상황 수준이 증가할수록 스트레스가 점진적으로 증가하는 것으로 확인할 수 있었으나, 운전 경험 그룹 간의 차이는 없었다. 반면, ECG 척도(STD RR, RMSSD, HF)는 숙련된 운전자 그룹이 미숙한 운전자 그룹보다 교차로 관련 위험 상황 동안 더 높은 스트레스를 나타낸다는 것을 보여주었다. 한편, 주의 능력 측면에서 AOI와 non-AOI 기반의 시선 추적 척도(fixation count, mean fixation duration, time-to-first-fixation and horizontal dispersion)는 위험 상황 조건 별 유의한 차이가 있었으나, 운전 경험 그룹 효과는 time-to-first-fixation에서만 나타났다. 이는 숙련된 운전자 그룹이 미숙한 운전자 그룹보다 위험 자극에 대해 상대적으로 신속하게 반응하기 때문인 것으로 판단된다. 게다가, mean fixation duration에서는 운전 경험과 위험 상황 조건의 교호작용 효과 또한 확인할 수 있었다. 숙련된 운전자 그룹은 미숙한 운전자 그룹보다 고위험 상황 하에서 주요 과업과 위험 자극 모두에 비례적으로 주의를 할당하는 것으로 나타났다. 숙련된 운전자 그룹이 미숙한 운전자 그룹보다 위험 상황 조건이 변함에 따라 스트레스 수준과 주의 부하의 변화가 더 심하다는 것을 나타내는 심리생리학적 척도들의 분석 결과는 주관적 설문지의 분석 결과를 통해 보다 확증되었다. 주관적 설문지의 결과 또한 숙련된 운전자 그룹이 미숙한 운전자 그룹보다 위험 상황 조건의 변화에 스트레스와 주의 능력 측면에서 보다 민감하다는 것을 보여주었다. 본 연구의 실험 결과는 숙련된 운전자와 미숙한 운전자의 두 그룹 간 뚜렷하면서 흥미로운 차이를 보여주었으며, 향후 교차로 관련 위험 상황 하에서 운전자의 안전에 도움을 줄 수 있는 지원 시스템과 효과적인 훈련 모듈을 설계하는 데 활용될 수 있을 것으로 기대된다.Abstract i Contents ii List of Tables iv List of Figures v Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Research Objectives 4 1.3 Organization of the Thesis 4 Chapter 2 Literature Review 5 2.1 Overview 5 2.2 Driving Experience and Performance 5 2.3 Stress 8 2.3.1 Stress and Driving 9 2.3.2 Driving Experience and Stress Susceptibility 11 2.3.3 Psychophysiological Measures of Stress 12 2.3.4 Subjective Measures of Stress 14 2.4 Attentional Functions 15 2.4.1 Attention and Driving 16 2.4.2 Driving Experience and Attention 18 2.4.3 Eye-tracking Measures of Attention 20 2.4.4 Subjective Measures of Attention 21 Chapter 3 Driving Simulation Experiment 22 3.1 Overview and Hypotheses 22 3.2 Methods 23 3.2.1 Participants 23 3.2.2 Apparatus 24 3.2.3 Measures 26 3.2.4 Experimental Design 27 3.2.5 Experimental Procedure 29 3.2.6 Data Analysis 30 3.3 Results 31 Chapter 4 Discussion 58 4.1 Driving Performance 58 4.2 Stress Level 59 4.3 Attentional Functions 62 Chapter 5 Conclusion 65 5.1 Conclusion 65 5.2 Future Direction 65 Bibliography 66 국문초록 77Maste

Visual Attention-Related Processing: Perspectives from Ageing, Cognitive Decline and Dementia

Visual attention is essential for environmental interactions, but our ability to respond to stimuli gradually declines across the lifespan, and such deficits are even more pronounced in various states of cognitive impairment. Examining the integrity of related components, from elements of attention capture to executive control, will improve our understanding of related declines by helping to explain behavioural and neural effects, which will ultimately contribute towards our knowledge of the extent of dysfunctional attention processes and their impact upon everyday life. Accordingly, this Special Issue represents a body of literature that fundamentally advances insights into visual attention processing, featuring studies spanning healthy ageing, mild cognitive impairment, and dementi

In-vehicle technology for self-driving cars: Advantages and challenges for aging drivers

The development of self-driving cars or autonomous vehicles has progressed at an unanticipated pace. Ironically, the driver or the driver-vehicle interaction is a largely neglected factor in the development of enabling technologies for autonomous vehicles. Therefore, this paper discusses the advantages and challenges faced by aging drivers with reference to in-vehicle technology for self-driving cars, on the basis of findings of recent studies. We summarize age-related characteristics of sensory, motor, and cognitive functions on the basis of extensive age-related research, which can provide a familiar to better aging drivers. Furthermore, we discuss some key aspects that need to be considered, such as familar to learnability, acceptance, and net effectiveness of new in-vehicle technology, as addressed in relevant studies. In addition, we present research-based examples on aging drivers and advanced technology, including a holistic approach that is being developed by MIT AgeLab, advanced navigation systems, and health monitoring systems. This paper anticipates many questions that may arise owing to the interaction of autonomous technologies with an older driver population. We expect the results of our study to be a foundation for further developments toward the consideration of needs of aging drivers while designing self-driving vehicles.Korea (South). Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (Technology Innovation Program 1004761)Kookmin University. Faculty Research ProgramNew England University Transportation CenterSantos Family Foundatio