Groundwater flow modelling under past ice-sheets : insight into paleo-recharge in the northern Baltic Artesian Basin

Des données de terrain et des études de modélisation ont montré que la recharge d'eau de fonte sous les calottes glaciaires peut avoir un impact important et durable sur l'écoulement des eaux souterraines. En Estonie, au nord du Bassin Artésien Balte (BAB), ce mécanisme de recharge est invoqué pour expliquer la présence d’importants volumes d'eaux souterraines marquées par un signal isotopique et géochimique glaciaire caractéristique, étant donné que la région a connu plusieurs glaciations durant le Pléistocène et a été entièrement recouverte par la calotte Fennoscandienne au cours du Dernier Maximum Glaciaire (DMG), il y a 20000 ans environ. Cette étude vise à tester cette hypothèse à l’aide de simulations numériques. En premier lieu, une étude conceptuelle a été effectuée pour déterminer quels processus sous-glaciaires doivent être représentés dans un modèle numérique qui reproduise adéquatement les écoulements souterrains et le transport de solutés. Les processus suivants ont été étudiés: la recharge sous-glaciaire d'eau de fonte, la déformation poroélastique du milieu poreux sous le poids de la glace, l’isostasie, l’évolution du drainage en surface, le permafrost et les écoulements densitaires impliquant des eaux douces de fonte et des saumures profondes. Ces processus ont été simulés dans un modèle représentant un bassin sédimentaire conceptuel, au cours d'un épisode glaciaire suivi d'une période postglaciaire. Le transport de trois traceurs d’eau glaciaire a été simulé: δ18O, solides dissouts et âge de l’eau. Les résultats montrent que la simulation de la recharge sous-glaciaire avec une condition-limite de type 1 (Dirichlet) n'est pertinente que pour des flux de faible amplitude, ce qui pourrait être le cas sous des calottes glaciaires dont la base n’est que partiellement en fusion. La compression de la matrice rocheuse diminue les surpressions, qui apparaissent uniquement dans les couches à faible diffusivité hydraulique et épaisses. Si la recharge sous-glaciaire est faible, la compression de la matrice rocheuse peut entraîner des sous-pressions après le retrait de la calotte glaciaire. L’isostasie réduit considérablement l'infiltration d'eau de fonte et les écoulements d'eau souterraine. Sous la couche de pergélisol, l'écoulement des eaux souterraines est réduit en-dessous de la calotte glaciaire mais augmente en région périglaciaire. Tenir compte des variations de densité en lien avec la salinité diminue l'infiltration d'eau de fonte en profondeur. Cette étude montre que chaque processus sous-glaciaire est potentiellement important et devrait être pris en compte dans des modèles d’écoulement des eaux souterraines et de transport de solutés en milieu sous-glaciaire. Cependant, il est raisonnable de ne représenter que la recharge sous-glaciaire si les informations manquent pour décrire correctement les autres processus. Par conséquent, ce seul processus a été simulé pour reproduire les écoulements d'eau souterraine sous la calotte Fennoscandienne dans le BAB. Les simulations ont été réalisées dans deux modèles 2D verticaux, afin de vérifier si la recharge sous-glaciaire d’eau de fonte peut expliquer la distribution particulière de δ18O (un traceur d’eau de fonte) dans les eaux souterraines de la région. L’un recoupe l’Estonie, l’autre la Lettonie et les îles estoniennes dans le Golfe de Riga. L'écoulement des eaux souterraines est simulé durant 28000 ans, depuis le DGM jusqu’à aujourd’hui, de même que le transport de δ18O pour tracer l'eau de fonte et confronter les résultats des simulations avec les données de terrain. L'espace d’incertitude de certains paramètres a été exploré, comme l’intensité et la durée de la recharge sous-glaciaire, ainsi que la composition isotopique initiale de l'eau de fonte. Les simulations fournissent un ajustement satisfaisant entre les valeurs observées et calculées de δ18O, confirmant l’hypothèse que le BAB a subi une phase de recharge sous-glaciaire durant le DMG. Elles montrent que la recharge sous-glaciaire a créé une inversion de l'écoulement des eaux souterraines dans le bassin. L’eau de fonte a infiltré tous les aquifères, en particulier les aquifères non confinés. Après le retrait de la calotte Fennoscandienne, l'eau de fonte a été entièrement remplacée par de l'eau météorique moderne, excepté dans les aquifères confinés où de l’eau de fonte a été préservée à proximité des zones de décharge. Par ailleurs, d’importants volumes d'eau de fonte sont probablement préservés sous la mer Baltique. Les simulations indiquent enfin que des épisodes de recharge sous-glaciaire antérieurs au DGM doivent être considérés afin d'expliquer les valeurs de δ18O dans la partie plus profonde du bassin.Field evidence and modelling studies have shown that subglacial recharge of meltwater under wet-based ice-sheets can have a significant and long-lasting impact on groundwater flow. In the northern Baltic Artesian Basin (BAB), in Estonia, this mechanism of recharge is thought to be responsible of the presence of large volumes of groundwater with a characteristic glacial isotopic and geochemical signal, because the region experienced several glaciations during the Pleistocene and was entirely covered by the Fennoscandian ice-sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), some 20 ky BP. The present study aims at testing this hypothesis by means of numerical simulations. First, a conceptual numerical study was performed to determine which glacial and subglacial processes need to be represented in numerical models for adequately capturing subglacial groundwater flow dynamics and solute transport. The relevance of the following processes was studied: subglacial recharge of meltwater, poroelastic deformation of the porous medium under ice-sheet loading, isostasy, evolution of surface drainage, permafrost, and density-dependent flow involving fresh glacial meltwater and deep brines. Simulations of these processes were conducted in a generic sedimentary basin during a single glacial event followed by a postglacial period. The transport of three common tracers of subglacial recharge was simulated: δ18O, TDS, and groundwater age. Results show that simulating subglacial recharge with a fixed flux boundary condition is relevant only for low fluxes, which could be the case under partially wet-based ice-sheets. Glacial loading decreases overpressures, which appear only in thick and low hydraulic diffusivity layers. If subglacial recharge is low, glacial loading can lead to underpressures after the retreat of the ice-sheet. Isostasy considerably reduces the infiltration of meltwater and the groundwater flow rates. Below permafrost, groundwater flow is reduced under the ice-sheet but is enhanced beyond the ice-sheet front. Accounting for salinity-dependent density reduces the infiltration of meltwater at depth. This study shows that each glacial process is potentially relevant in models of subglacial groundwater flow and solute transport. However, representing only subglacial recharge can be a reasonable assumption if information is missing to describe the other processes properly. Therefore, this single process is simulated to reproduce groundwater flow beneath the Fennoscandian ice-sheet in the northern BAB. Simulations are performed in two cross-sectional models, in order to check whether subglacial recharge of meltwater can explain the unusual distribution of δ18O in groundwater in the region, which serves as a tracer of glacial meltwater. One model crosses Estonia, the other crosses Latvia and Estonian islands in the Gulf of Riga. Groundwater flow is simulated over 28 ky, from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to present-day, along with δ18O transport for tracing meltwater and to compare the results of the simulations with field data. Parameter space exploration of subglacial recharge conditions is used to tackle the uncertainty in the intensity and duration of subglacial recharge in the northern BAB, as well as in the isotopic composition of meltwater. Simulations provide a satisfying fit between the observed and the computed values of δ18O, supporting the idea that subglacial recharge happened in the northern BAB during the LGM. Simulations show that subglacial recharge created a flow reversal in the basin. Meltwater infiltrated into all aquifers, especially the shallow ones. After the retreat of the Fennoscandian ice-sheet, meltwater was entirely replaced by modern meteoric water, excepted in confined aquifers where some meltwater has been preserved close to the discharge areas. Large volumes of meltwater are also probably preserved beneath the Baltic Sea. Simulations also indicate that episodes of subglacial recharge prior to the LGM must be considered in order to explain the values of δ18O in the deeper basin

The Mid-Pleistocene landscape history of the Lower Aare Valley with emphasis on subglacial overdeepening

Throughout the most recent part of geological history, glaciers repeatedly built up in the Alps and advanced into the mountain foreland, episodically covering the majority of Switzerland and neighbouring regions with ice. This had severe geomorphic impacts that include the subglacial erosion of overdeepenings. These closed basins are not only a potential source of geohazards, but also contain valuable resources and archives of past environments, and therefore deserve our closer attention. However, our knowledge of i) the erosional mechanisms and the subglacial conditions that lead to the formation of overdeepenings, and ii) of the number, the timing, and the extent of Alpine glaciations, is still very limited. The present thesis is centred around four scientific boreholes in the Lower Aare Valley in northern Switzerland and addresses the above-mentioned uncertainties. The study area hosts the overdeepened Gebenstorf-Stilli Trough, whose subsurface morphology is the first major focus. It is constrained by borehole and geophysical data that together reveal a complex trough shape controlled by the particular local bedrock architecture comprising rocks of varying subglacial erodibility. The results further highlight the important role of basal water in overdeepening erosion, which is further corroborated in a second case study. There, surficial brecciation of the walls of a paleokarst network in limestone underlying the overdeepening is presented. Following detailed macro- and microscopic analysis, it is interpreted as the result of subglacial hydrofracturing, and thus illustrates the extreme water pressures below the glacier ice. Finally, the focus is shifted towards the sedimentary archives of the Gebenstorf-Stilli Trough and its surrounding. Based on a multi-method sedimentological approach, the diverse Quaternary deposits are characterised and their depositional history is reconstructed. Several phases of glacial and glaciofluvial reactivation of the major drainage pathways as well as contributions from confluent glaciers are identified. An integration of luminescence data indicates that overdeepening erosion in the Lower Aare Valley dates back to MIS 10 or earlier, and that the local sedimentary record spans large parts of the Middle and Late Pleistocene

Review submerged speleothems and sea level reconstructions: A global overview and new results from the mediterranean sea

This study presents a global overview of the submerged speleothems used to reconstruct paleo sea levels and reports new results from two stalactites collected in the Mediterranean Sea. Coastal cave deposits significantly contributed to the understanding of global and regional sea-level variations during the Middle and Late Quaternary. The studied speleothems cover the last 1.4 Myr and focused mainly on Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1, 2, 3, 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 and 7.5. The results indicate that submerged speleothems represent extraordinary archives that can provide detailed information on former sea-level changes. The two stalactites collected in the central Mediterranean Sea, at Favignana and Ustica islands (Sicily, Italy), are both characterized by continental, phreatic or marine layers. The U-Th and14C ages of the new speleothems provide results of great interest for relative sea-level changes over the last 1000 years

Role of the geosphere in deep nuclear waste disposal – An England and Wales perspective

To dispose permanently of its higher activity nuclear waste England and Wales have chosen deep geological disposal as the most appropriate solution currently available. The purpose of this paper is to describe the main geological features, events and processes relevant to England and Wales that will need to be considered to demonstrate that a site is suitable for a geological disposal facility (GDF). England and Wales are in the early stages of a GDF siting process in which areas of interest are being evaluated using mainly existing data from surface mapping and hydrocarbon exploration and production. Sites are evaluated consistently under six overarching headings, three of which are impacted by their geological setting – safety, engineering feasibility and value for money. “Suitable” geology is that which is safe during the operational and long-term post-closure period, which could have a GDF and its accessways constructed within it, and which delivers value for money. A GDF needs to fulfil dual safety functions wherever it is located: long-term containment of radionuclides, and isolation of the waste from human actions and from natural processes such as glaciations and earthquakes. The role of the geosphere in delivering these safety functions is to provide a low-flux groundwater environment with geochemical conditions that minimise degradation of the engineered components of the GDF, to promote retention of mobilised radionuclides, and to protect the waste from the impacts of humans and natural processes. The containment function of a GDF is provided by a combination of rock and engineering generally referred to as the multibarrier system. It comprises the engineered barriers – solid wasteforms, canisters, buffers, backfill materials, plugs and seals – that work together with the rock to ensure long-term containment. The GDF Programme in England and Wales seeks to identify suitable geological environments for which bespoke engineered barriers can be tailored to optimize the performance of the multibarrier system. The post-closure period over which independent regulators will require a safety case to demonstrate the long-term containment and isolation capabilities of a GDF is up to 1 million years. The long timescales make post-closure safety assessments a unique feature of deep geological disposal programmes. A comprehensive site characterization programme will use information mostly from seismic surveying and deep investigation boreholes to establish adequate rock availability (host rock depth, thickness, areal extent and compartmentalisation), suitable properties and behaviour of the deep geological environment, and the constructability and operability of a potential GDF site including its surface to subsurface access ways. Nuclear Waste Services, the organisation tasked with developing a GDF in England and Wales, is currently engaged with four Community Partnerships through a volunteer siting process: three in west Cumbria, and one on the English east coast in Theddlethorpe, Lincolnshire. In all of these areas Mesozoic claystones have been provisionally identified as potentially suitable GDF host rocks and are being investigated further, with a dedicated 3D seismic survey acquired off the coast of Cumbria in 2022. The main conclusion to be drawn from this paper is that a GDF could be sited in a large number of geological settings in England and Wales, and that the success of the current siting process will largely depend on engaging effectively with willing communities and building enduring relationships with them

Natural and anthropogenic fluid migration pathways in marine sediments

Fluids are an important agent in nearly all geologic processes that shape the planet Earth. Fluid abundance and composition are governed by flow along permeable beds or natural and anthropogenic structures in the subsurface including faults, wells, and chimneys/pipes. Spatial and temporal variations in fluid flow activity modify total fluxes between geosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. These fluxes have broad implications for geological processes including the formation of natural resources or the occurrence of geohazards including landslides, earthquakes and blowouts. They further play a crucial role for the global carbon cycles and the climate system. A qualitative and quantitative understanding of fluid flow in the subsurface is therefore important to assess the role of fluids in the Earth system and to quantify fluxes from the geosphere into the hydro- and atmosphere. In this Ph.D. thesis I use an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to study natural and anthropogenic fluid migration pathways in marine sediments in the North Sea, the convergent Hikurangi margin, and a section of the ancient Tethys margin which is now exposed near Varna, Bulgaria. The applied methods include conventional 3D seismic, high-resolution 3D seismic, and 2D seismic data as well as hydroacoustic, sedimentological, unmanned aerial vehicle-based photogrammetric and geochemical data. In each of the studied systems, natural and/or anthropogenic fluid migration pathways allow the transport of significant amounts of fluids through marine sediments towards the seafloor. Often the co-existence of multiple pathways enables the fluids to bypass permeability barriers within the Earth’s crust resulting in the formation of structurally complex flow systems. Focused fluid flow along normal faults in the Hikurangi margin likely plays an active role in the subduction drainage system, influences the slope stability and the morphotectonic evolution of the margin. Results from the Eocene Tethys margin show that focused fluid flow in marine sediments is possible in unconsolidated sands if seepage is focused at the top of faulted units and the flux rate is high enough. This stands in contrast to the general assumption that focused fluid flow in marine sediments is limited to low-permeable sediments. In the marine environment the term fluid flow is often used to exclusively refer to the flow of hydrocarbons. However, geochemical data from the North Sea and the Tethys margin indicate that the involved fluids are of different origin including compaction-related dehydration and submarine groundwater discharge. In each of the investigated cases, the temporal and spatial evolution of fluid flow is not fully addressed yet, especially with regard to vertical fluid conduits or the safety of subsurface drilling and storage operations. The results of my thesis highlight that the investigation of fluid migration pathways requires an interdisciplinary approach which may indicate the origin of the fluids, help understand the fluxes of fluids from the geosphere into the hydrosphere and atmosphere of the past, present and future and reveal the resulting consequences for the global carbon cycles and the climate system

Evidence for methane hydrate stability zones during Pleistocene glaciation at the Bruce Nuclear Site

A gas hydrate refers to the state in which hydrogen-bonded water molecules form a rigid lattice structure of so-called "cages", wherein "guest" molecules of natural gas are entrapped. Not unlike ice, gas hydrates are prone to form at low temperatures and high pressures; however, their crystalline structure allows them to remain stable at temperatures and pressures under which the phase limits of ice would otherwise be exceeded. To date, a number of instances of gas hydrates forming in the subsurface of Arctic climates below layers of permafrost have been identified, however the challenge of identifying past occurrences of methane hydrates during episodes of global cooling and glacial advance remains relatively unmet. During these periods of glacial/permafrost cover, the presence of hydrates could have a significant impact on the groundwater flow system due to the significant reduction of the porosity and permeability of hydrate saturated sediments. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether there is evidence to suggest that methane hydrates could have formed in the sedimentary units of the Michigan Basin at the Bruce nuclear site near Kincardine, Ontario, particularly when subjected to the impacts of glacial ice sheet loading. This study aims to provide insight into whether the potential impact of gas hydrates should be considered in the design of the proposed deep-geologic repository (DGR) for low- and intermediate-level nuclear waste. This study presents a framework employing regional-scale numerical modelling to estimate the evolution of temperature, pressure and salinity profiles across the study area, combined with thermodynamic predictive modelling to identify potential paleo-methane hydrate stability zones in the subsurface at the Bruce nuclear site. This study represents the first step to ultimately assess the extent of paleo-methane hydrates and their impact on subsurface conditions at the site. Transient subsurface conditions at the Bruce nuclear site were modelled over a period of 120,000 years (120 ka), encompassing episodes of glacial advance and retreat during the Pleistocene epoch. The spatial and transient outputs from numerical modelling of the study area were then used as inputs to thermodynamic predictive modelling of methane hydrate stability. The results of this study show that, based upon the subsurface temperature, pressure and salinity histories determined using a three-dimensional regional-scale numerical modelling approach, paleo-conditions at the Bruce nuclear site become conducive with methane hydrate stability during the study period. Two separate episodes of methane hydrate stability were identified - lasting from 62.5 to 56 thousand years before present (kaBP) and from 23 to 13.5 kaBP, respectively - which were found to correspond to periods of glacial advance across the study area. The vertical extent of the estimated hydrate stability zones varied across the site, however it generally followed the limits of the Upper Silurian units, penetrating to deeper elevations towards the south west end of the study area

1st Workshop Proceedings of the Collaborative Project "Crystalline Rock Retention Processes" (7th EC FP CP CROCK) (KIT Scientific Reports ; 7629)

The EURATOM 7th EC Framework Program Collaborative Project Crystalline ROCK retention processes (CROCK) started in January 2011 and extends over 2 and a half years. The key driver for initiation the CP CROCK, identified by national Waste Management Organizations, is the undesired high uncertainty and the associated conservatism with respect to the radionuclide transport in the crystalline host-rock far-field around geological disposal of high-level radioactive wastes