Исследование процесса высоковольтного электроразрядного спекания порошка быстрорежущей стали Р6М5

A. V. Alifanov, I. A. Bogdanovich, J. I. Krivonos, V. V. Maleronok, A. M. Miliukova, O. A. Tolkacheva. RESEARCH OF THE PROCESS OF HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRIC DISCHARGE SINTERING OF P6M5 RAPID STEEL POWDERПроведены исследования по изучению процесса высоковольтного электроразрядного спекания порошка быстрорежущей стали Р6М5. Процесс высоковольтного электроразрядного спекания порошков сопровождается комплексом электрофизических, термодинамических и механических явлений, оказывающих влияние на процессы спекания образцов и их свойства. Установлено, что процесс высоковольтного электроразрядного спекания порошков стали Р6М5 сопровождается уплотнением порошка в результате спекания частиц, а также действием на образец из порошка сжимающих напряжений. Большое влияние на процесс высоковольтного электроразрядного спекания оказывают форма и размер частиц, характер поверхностных пленок, размер и форма матрицы. К факторам, влияющим на прочностные свойства образцов, относятся гранулометрический состав порошка, его исходное электросопротивление, а также технологические параметры обработки, такие как энергия разряда и плотность разрядного тока

Lithuania on the way to energy independence: an experience or a lesson?

The article considers the steps taken by Lithuania towards gaining energy independence in the interbellum and the Soviet periods. The author analyses the peculiarities of the republic's energy policy after achieving independence in the early 1990s and estimates the methods of diversifying energy supply in Lithuania

Higher trade and economic education in Ukraine in 1941–1945

Проаналізовано процеси, які відбувалися у вищій торговельно-економічній освіті в Україні у 1941–1945 рр. Досліджено реорганізацію вищих торговельно-економічних навчальних закладів України, труднощі початкового етапу війни, евакуації, умови німецького окупаційного режиму. Розкрито питання відбудови вищої торговельно-економічної освіти в Україні у 1943–1945 ррПроанализированы процессы, проходившие в высшем торгово- экономическом образовании в Украине в 1941–1945 гг. Исследованы реорганизация высших торгово-экономических учебных заведений, трудности начального этапа войны, эвакуации, условия немецкого оккупационного режима. Раскрыт вопрос возрождения высшего торгово-экономического образования в Украине в 1943–1945 ггBackground. The confrontation of two political regimes in the late 1930-s -early 1940-s put on the agenda cooperation in terms of confrontation and mutual inhibition. Under such conditions society contenders had to operate and provide troops at the front with all necessary. It was at that time became obvious exceptional role of trade and higher trade and economic education, which was able to provide experts to this strategic industry. Education sector pursuant to react to the crisis by changing educational approaches in training, including in trade and catering. The aim is to study the situation of trade and economic higher education in Ukraine during the war of 1941–1945. The isolation inherent in the period of internal processes. Materials and methods. A significant part of the study of sources are archival materials. The study used methods: analysis of historical documents and historical comparative, retrospective, chronologically. Results. Trading Higher Education of Ukraine for 1941–1945. Evolved in conditions of combat evacuation, occupation, occupation of Ukrainian lands later the Red Army. The fighting resulted in the destruction of both the Red Army and the Wehrmacht material base of the educational sector, including trade and education. Great devastation suffered material base of the Kharkov Institute of Soviet Trade, which unlike the Lviv Institute of Soviet Trade was in a better position. The expulsion of German troops from Ukraine put on the agenda of restoration of peaceful life, for which experts were needed trade and catering. Training of highly qualified for these areas closely engaged in Kharkiv and Lviv Institute of Soviet Trade, which in the 1944–1945 academic year managed to restore physical infrastructure of universities equip faculty, to make admission to the profession, to organize the educational process, providing students and teachers everything you need in terms of widespread shortages. Financial institutions renewed base both through government and through hard work of teachers and students themselves. Conclusion. The process taking place in higher trade and economic education in Ukraine 1941–1945. Studied the results of the reorganization of higher trade and economic institutions of Ukraine, the difficulties of the initial stage of the war, evacuation conditions of the German occupation regime. Make contributions to the disclosure of the issue of reconstruction of higher trade and economic education in Ukraine 1943–1945 biennium. A significant achievement of the authors of the article was that most of the documents processed in the archives, first introduced into scientific circulatio

The Fate of Baltic Refugees and Displaced Persons in 1945–1952: the Example of Estonian Refugees and Displaced Persons

Väitekirja elektriooniline versioon ei sisalda publikatsioone.Väitekirjas käsitletakse Teise maailmasõja tõttu läände sattunud balti pagulaste problemaatikat 1945-1952 Eesti pagulaste näitel. Töö koosneb neljast artiklist, artikleid täiendavast kahest peatükis ja arutelust. Kui esimeses artiklis antakse ülevaade Eesti diasporaa tekkest ning seni toimunud kolmest suuremast väljarände lainest, siis teine artikkel keskendub kitsalt Teise maailmasõja ajal toimunud eestlaste lahkumisele läände. Kolmas artikkel käsitleb eestlaste repatrieerimist ning repatrieerumist. Kuna repatrieerumisega on otseselt seotud Jalta konverents, siis kolmandas artiklis vaadeldaksegi põhjalikumalt asjaolusid, mis viisid Jalta konverentsi otsusteni ja ka seda, millised olid konverentsil vastuvõetud otsuste tagajärjed baltlastest pagulastele. Dissertatsiooni neljandas artiklis käsitletakse Taani sattunud eestlastest põgenike saatust. Artikli alguses antakse põhjalik ülevaade sõjajärgselt Taani, kui Briti tsooni kuulunud piirkonna, põgenike elukorraldusest. Pärast Taani sattunud põgenike elukorralduse tutvustust järgneb detailne andmeanalüüs Taani sattunud eestlastest. Analüüsimiseks võeti nende vanus, haridus, amet(id), peamised sihtriikid Taanist edasi ümberasumisel. Väitekirja esimeses peatükis esitatakse Teise maailmasõja ajal ning järgselt terminite põgenik ja maapagulane (ingl displaced person DP) ümber toimunu. Analüüsitakse, mis võis avaldada mõju mainitud terminite arengutele ning mis oli läbiviidud muudatuste oletatavad eesmärgid. Dissertatsiooni teine peatükk käsitleb Teise maailmasõja ajal ja järgselt tegutsenud rahvusvaheliste pagulasorganisatsioonide tegevust. Töös keskendutakse eelkõige Ühinenud Rahvaste Abistamis- ja Taastamise Administratsiooni (UNRRA) tegevusele. Kokkuvõttes saab öelda, et dissertatsiooniga õnnestus käibele tuua uusi algallikaid. Allikate kriitiline analüüs ja põhjalik uurimine võimaldab ümber lükata mõned senised seisukohad eestlaste sattumisest läände Teise maailmasõja käigus ning mõista paremini, mis nendega edasi toimunus.This dissertation studies the fate of refugees and displaced persons from the Baltic countries that were displaced to the West, using Estonians as the example. The dissertation consists of four articles, two chapters that supplement the articles, and a discussion that sums up the chapters and articles. The first article gives an overview of the development of the Estonian diaspora and explains the temporal and spatial changes in the diaspora. The second article studies the Estonians who left during World War II as well as the process of emigration. The third article deals with repatriation of the Estonians and the Yalta Agreement that was signed in February 1945 in detail. The fourth article focuses on the Estonians that ended up in Denmark during the World War II. This article gives first of all an overview of the refugees camps in Denmark: who and how took care of the refugees in the camps. Secondly, there is a detailed study about the Estonians who ended up in Denmark and stayed in the camps. The first chapter of this dissertation analyses the terms ‘refugee’ and ‘displaced person’ in the context of World War II. The second chapter provides an overview of the international refugee organisations that operated during and after World War II. Based on earlier research, it was known that, compared to other organisations which were active at the time, the UNRRA (the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) played a significant role in influencing the fate of the refugees and DPs of Europe, including the Baltic countries. Summing up the years of research, the author can conclude that the refugees and displaced persons displaced to the West from Baltic countries have been regarded as a part of the East-West conflict

Działalność podziemia antykomunistycznego na Południowym Podlasiu (1944-1948)

The Southern Podlachia is understood as the area which administratively, politically and ethnically nowadays belongs to the Masovia Voivodeship, constituting its eastern part and Lublin Voivodeship. Course of military actions alongside the eastern front in July and August 1944 had a great impact on the future of the anti-communist conspiracy in the Southern Podlachia. Saturation of the area of Podlachia with the Red Army soldierstowards the end of 1944 did not encourage the activation of the resistance. The acceptance of the communist government by the Allies created a new image of Poland at an international forum. This was reflected by the perception of the political situation in the resistance leadership. Therefore already in August 1945, col. Jan Rzepecki gave an order to disband the Armed Forces Delegation. On account of a new political situation in Europeand Poland on the 2nd of September 1945, a new conspiracy organisation, Freedom and Independence, became constituted; it was expected to have a civil and political, and not military, nature. Overall, as a result of the activities of the independence resistance movement in the Southern Podlachia around 900 people were killed in 1944-1948, including 95 in the district of Łuków, 135 in the district of Siedlce, 98 in the district of Sokołów, 66 in the district of Węgrów, 282 in the district of Biała Podlaska and 130 in the district of Radzyń. According to my calculations the resistance movement conducted around 1500 actions targeting disorganisation of the communist authorities’ system. Spectacular actions were found amongst them, i.e. the action lead by the troops of Leon Taraszkiewicz, alias “Jastrząb”, on the 17th of July 1946, when the partisans stopped the car with Bolesław Bierut’s sister, Zofia Malewska, and her family. Military activities of the anti-communist resistance in the Southern Podlachia 1944-1948 ended in bloody harvest on both sides of the political barricade. Around 240 people were killed at the hands of the communists in the district of Sokołów; the losses of people in the district of Siedlce in 1944-1954 amounted to 430, in the district of Radzyń around 120 people, in the district of Włodawa more than 1300 people. Overall, around 2500 people died at the hands of the communist authorities in the Southern Podlachia between 1944 and 1948. It is necessary to add to that the victims of the people’s judicature, which condemned to death penalty 100 people, which gives us 2600 victims of communist in Podlachia. If to the sum of the communism victims we addaround 900 people killed at the hands of the resistance movement, we will get a number of victims of around 3500 people. This is the price the society of the Southern Podlachia paid during the fights for power between 1944 and 1948.Przez Południowe Podlasie rozumiem tereny, które administracyjnie, politycznie i etnicznie dzisiaj należą do województwa mazowieckiego, stanowiąc jego wschodnią część, i województwa lubelskiego. Przebieg działań wojennych na froncie wschodnim w lipcu i sierpniu 1944 r. wywarł duży wpływ na losy konspiracji antykomunistycznej na terenie Południowego Podlasia. Nasycenie terenu Podlasia żołnierzami ACz pod koniec 1944 r. nie sprzyjało uaktywnieniu się podziemia. Uznanie rządu komunistycznego przez aliantów stworzył dla Polski nowy wizerunek na forum międzynarodowym. Znalazło toodbicie w postrzeganiu sytuacji politycznej w dowództwie podziemia. Stąd też w sierpniu 1945 r. płk Jan Rzepecki wydał rozkaz rozwiązujący Delegaturę Sił Zbrojnych. W związku z nową sytuacją polityczną w Europie i Polsce 2 września 1945 r. została powołana nowa organizacja konspiracyjna Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawisłość, która miała mieć charakter cywilny, polityczny, a nie wojskowy. W sumie w wyniku działalności podziemianiepodległościowego na Południowym Podlasiu w latach 1944-1948 zginęło ok. 900 osób, w tym w powiecie łukowskim-95, siedleckim-135, sokołowskim-98, węgrowskim-66, bialskim-282 i radzyńskim-130 osób. Podziemie niepodległościowe według moich obliczeń przeprowadziło ok. 1500 akcji wymierzonych w dezorganizację systemu władzy komunistycznej. Znalazły się wśród nich akcje spektakularne, np. akcja przeprowadzona przez oddział Leona Taraszkiewicza ps. „Jastrząb” 17 lipca 1946 r., kiedy partyzanci zatrzymali samochód z siostrą Bolesława Bieruta-Zofią Malewską z rodziną. Działalność zbrojna podziemia antykomunistycznego na Południowym Podlasiu 1944-1948 zebrała krwawe żniwo po obu stronach barykady politycznej. Z rąk komunistów w powiecie sokołowskim zginęło ok. 240 osób, w powiecie siedleckim w latach 1944-1954 straty wyniosły 430 osób, w powiecie radzyńskim ok. 120 osób, w powiecie włodawskim ponad 1300 osób. W sumie z rąk władzy komunistycznej zginęło na Południowym Podlasiu w latach 1944-1948 ok. 2 500 osób. Do tego trzeba doliczyć ofiary ludowego wymiaru sprawiedliwości, który skazał na karę śmierci 100 osób, co nam daje 2 600 ofiar komunizmu na Podlasiu. Jeżeli do sumy 176 ofiar komunizmu doliczymy ok. 900 osób zabitych z rąk podziemia niepodległościowego, otrzymamy ofiary w liczbie ok. 3 500 osób. Jest to cena jaką zapłaciło społeczeństwo Południowego Podlasia w czasie walki o władzę w latach 1944-1948

Wissen ist menschlich. Der Stellenwert der Human Intelligence in der britischen Kriegsführung 1939–1945

This thesis examines the use of prisoners of war (POWs), agents and other groups of persons as source of information in the British conduct of war against Germany during the Second World War and demonstrates its significance. While the successes of Bletchley Park in decrypting German wireless traffic are well-known, human intelligence (HUMINT) has received considerably less scholarly attention. During the years 1939 to 1945, the British used an extensive espionage network, maintained informal contacts in neutral cities, and questioned refugees, convicted enemy spies and soldiers who had escaped from German captivity. Most notably, the military services established a far-reaching system of interrogation facilities to obtain intelligence from German prisoners of war in all theatres of war. These activities provided a valuable amount of intelligence on German weaponry, tactics, plans and mentality, which not only constituted useful background information in rapidly changing war conditions but also improved decision-making processes and resulting actions. During the past decades, the main focus of academic research lay on signals intelligence and its influence on British strategy and operations which resulted in a neglect of other forms of intelligence. Recent academic research has not only emphasised a more holistic view of intelligence and its impact on warfare but also points to several successful HUMINT operations such as the international cooperation in espionage and the so-called Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre, United Kingdom (CSDIC(UK)). At the same time, studies in intelligence provide an extensive framework dealing with various theoretical, practical and ethical aspects which facilitates the analysis of intelligence in historical context. In light of these developments and the unprecedented access to archival material, a re-evaluation of the role of human intelligence in Great Britain during the Second World War is necessary. This thesis combines the theoretical approaches of intelligence with an examination of the organisation of human intelligence during wartime. It utilises three case studies covering the tactical, operational and strategic level of war. First, it offers a model of “main areas”, collection, analysis, dissemination and use, to examine the intelligence process in historical context. These elements constitute a set of interacting steps which describe the way from a specific piece of raw material to its use as human intelligence in decision-making. The human origin influences the characteristics of the intelligence process such as the interaction of individuals during collection, the inherent problem of reliability and accuracy, and the question of acceptance by potential users. The model also serves as a basis for an evaluation scheme: the internal value addresses the intelligence process itself, whereas the external value measures the effect within decision-making and its impact on resulting actions. Regarding the organisational aspect, the intelligence agencies responsible for human intelligence used their previous experience from the last war and grew significantly in size during the Second World War. The interrogation of prisoners of war consisted of a multi-step process with the CSDIC(UK) at the top, which over 10 000 POWs passed through. The combination of interrogation techniques – such as the omniscient trick and friendly approach, concealed microphones, and former refugees or prisoners acting as stool pigeons – resulted in a high output of accurate and appreciated HUMINT. The Secret Service (SIS) recovered after some setbacks at the beginning of the war and – supported by contacts in occupied territory – it was able to deliver reports covering a wide range of topics. In addition, the Security Service (MI5) and the Special Operations Executive (SOE) supplemented the work of the SIS – besides their primary objectives. In addition to the use of enemy prisoners and agents in the field, there were three other sources for HUMINT: the questioning of refugees in the specifically designed London Reception Centre, regular contacts with interned British soldiers and individual arrangements in neutral countries, most notably in Sweden and Switzerland, which provided the Foreign Office with news of varying quality. The outcome of these extensive efforts is discussed in the three case studies. The tactical example deals with the defence against German attacks during the Battle of Britain and the Blitz in 1940/1941. POW Intelligence supplemented the other sources of intelligence with the perspective of the enemy: it provided actual data on armament, armour and equipment of German bomber and fighter aircraft; it added details on the order of battle and combat readiness of the German Luftwaffe; and it gave insight into enemy tactics, targeting and the effectiveness of British countermeasures. Therefore, HUMINT made a valuable contribution to the overall intelligence picture which supported and optimised the efforts of Fighter Command. It helped to prepare fighter pilots for their engagements with the enemy and to counter new tactics and technologies such as navigational aids for night bombing. The operational case study covers the detection of the German plans to use a liquid rocket and cruise missile (the so called V-weapons V1 and V2) against British cities, where human intelligence played a key role. In early 1943, SIS reports and secret records of conversations between German POWs convinced the authorities in London of the danger of a long range weapon of a new type. HUMINT later gave indications of the existence of two distinct weapons and the V1 firing system in Northern France. In 1944, it provided details on the characteristics and launching procedures of the V2. These contributions enabled the British not only to direct other intelligence resources such as aerial reconnaissance towards the new threat but also to develop effective offensive and defensive countermeasures. These delayed the deployment of the two weapons and significantly reduced the inflicted damage. The strategic example deals with the British efforts to assess the state of morale of the German military and civilian population. This aspect was primarily covered by human intelligence. Although the amount of raw material gradually expanded and the analytical methods became more sophisticated – especially after the drastic increase of prisoner of war interrogations after D-Day –, the impact of HUMINT remained ambivalent. Until 1943, preconceived opinions about an inferior German morale and an especially vulnerable civilian population were not altered by intelligence products provided by the Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee and a separate “morale committee”. The conviction in the second half of 1943 that Germany would collapse from within as it had happened in 1918 was the most visible result. In the following months, intelligence analysis improved considerably and finally falsified previous hopes; however, that development did not restrain British authorities from over-enthusiastic expectations of a rapid end of war in the summer of 1944. Ultimately, human intelligence provided a considerable insight into the inner state of the enemy, but the intelligence task to detect a predefined collapse and the attempt to conceive an elaborated concept of morale overburdened the intelligence services. This thesis combines theoretical approaches with a historical analysis and shows that human intelligence was a powerful force multiplier which the British early recognized and successfully utilized. Therefore, this thesis offers a new perspective on British intelligence and military history during the Second World War. Furthermore, it seeks to contribute to general discussions about the relevance of intelligence in decision-making up to the present day