Attribute Elicitation: Implications in the Research Context1

Three different methods of attribute elicitation for two different paper-based products were compared in this study. The three methods used were free elicitation (FE), hierarchical dichotomization (HD), and Kelly's repertory grid (RG). The two paper-based products used in this study were bathroom tissue and paper towels. The methods were compared by abstraction, efficiency in data collection, convergent validity, and respondents' reaction to the task. The results from this comparison indicated that the level of abstraction did not significantly differ between methods or products. However, a rank order analysis revealed that a substantial difference existed with 18 to 20% of the attributes being rated significantly different between the elicitation methods for paper towels and bathroom tissue, respectively. Convergent validity was exhibited between all the methods, although was found to be highest between HD and RG. These findings suggest that all three elicitation methods elicit very similar information from the consumers' knowledge base. The efficiency in data collection revealed that for both products FE took significantly less time to complete the task, as well as to elicit the individual attributes. Furthermore, HD was identified as being the least efficient of the methods for either product. For the comparison of the reaction to task, FE was found to be the least difficult of the three methods and also allowed the respondents to more freely express their opinion

Low fitness partially explains resting metabolic rate differences between African American and white women

Background High levels of obesity among African American women have been hypothesized to be partially resultant from a lower resting metabolic rate compared with white women. The aim of the current study was to determine if differences in cardiorespiratory fitness and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity are associated with differences in resting metabolic rate among free-living young adult African American women and white women. Methods Participants were 179 women (white women n = 141, African American women n = 38, mean age = 27.7 years). Resting metabolic rate was measured using indirect calorimetry, body composition using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, cardiorespiratory fitness via maximal treadmill test, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity using an activity monitor. Results African American women had higher body mass index, fat mass, and fat-free mass compared with white women but lower levels of cardiorespiratory fitness. No differences were observed between African American and white women in resting metabolic rate when expressed as kcal/day (1390.8 ± 197.5 vs 1375.7 ± 173.6 kcal/day, P =.64), but African American women had a lower resting metabolic rate when expressed relative to body weight (2.56 ± 0.30 vs 2.95 ± 0.33 mL/kg/min,

Impacts of high-temperature and restraint on kiln-dried grand fir studs curve sawn from small-diameter logs

Eighteen-hundred grand fir (Abies grandis) studs, curve sawn from small-diameter [approximately 4-7 inches (102-178 mm)] sawlogs, were kiln dried to determine effects of drying schedule and restraint on energy consumption, drying time, and warp (bow, crook, and twist). The experimental design included 18 kiln charges with three replications of three kiln schedules. Nine of the kiln charges were restrained and nine were unrestrained. Kiln schedules were high-temperature [240/ F (116/ C) dry bulb with no venting or steam spray], elevated [190-220/ F (88-104/ C) dry bulb and 190-165/ F (88- 74/ C) wet bulb], and conventional [180/ F (82/ C) dry bulb and 170-145/ F (77-63/ C) wet bulb]. Restraint loading was 200 pounds per square foot (psf) (976 kg/m2). Results showed that the high-temperature schedule consumed approximately one-third and one-half of the energy of the elevated and conventional schedules, respectively. In addition, drying time averaged 21.1 hours with the high-temperature schedule, 42.0 hours with the elevated schedule, and 50.3 hours with the conventional schedule. Although there were several significant differences in bow, crook, and twist in lumber dried by the three schedules, no schedule showed significantly lower warp. Results also showed that restraint reduced warp in lumber in the high-temperature and elevated schedules, and much of the warp reduction was in lumber within the top six courses of the stack. In addition, restraint reduced the variance of warp in lumber dried by all three schedules

Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between different exercise types and food cravings in free-living healthy young adults

Introduction: An increase in energy intake due to alterations in hedonic appetite sensations may, at least in part, contribute to lower-than-expected weight loss in exercise interventions. The aim of this study was to examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between habitual exercise participation and food cravings in free-living young adults. Methods: A total of 417 adults (49% male, 28 ± 4 years) reported frequency and duration of walking, aerobic exercise, resistance exercise and other exercise at baseline and every 3 months over a 12-month period. Food cravings were assessed via the Control of Eating Questionnaire at baseline and 12-month follow-up. Results: Cross-sectional analyses revealed more frequent cravings for chocolate and a greater difficulty to resist food cravings in women compared to men (p < 0.01). Only with resistance exercise significant sex by exercise interaction effects were observed with favorable responses in men but not in women. Significant main effects were shown for walking and aerobic exercise with exercisers reporting more frequent food cravings for chocolate and fruits and greater difficulty to resist eating compared to non-exercisers (p < 0.05). Longitudinal analyses revealed significant interaction effects for other exercise (p < 0.05) with favorable results in men but not women. Furthermore, significant main effects were observed for aerobic exercise, resistance exercise and total exercise with an increase in exercise being associated with a reduced difficulty to resist food cravings (p < 0.05). Discussion: The association between exercise participation and hedonic appetite sensations varies by exercise type and sex. Even though exercise was associated with more frequent and greater difficulty to food cravings in the cross-sectional analyses, which may be attributed to greater energy demands, longitudinal results indicate beneficial effects of increased exercise on appetite control, particularly in men

Directory of Idaho Wood Products Manufacturers 2000

This Directory of Idaho Wood Products Manufacturers has been prepared to assist in marketing the wide variety of wood products produced in the State of Idaho. It is our intent to list all wood products producers in the State that are interested in making their products and services available to potential customers. Companies listed range from primary wood products manufacturers to specialized niche product producers. Data published in this directory originated from several primary and secondary sources

CINTRAFOR Working Paper 72

Currently, less than one percent of the private and industrial timberlands in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) are managed for hardwood production. In order to provide an incentive to manage the hardwood resource actively, hardwood stumpage prices must be consistently competitive with conifer stumpage prices, although this has generally not been the case in the PNW. A variety of factors could contribute to hardwoods being more actively promoted in the timberland manager’s portfolio. For example, species diversity provides stability in a cyclical market, improves soil fertility, and promotes biodiversity in forest stands. The hardwood industry in the PNW, largely red alder, has experienced surprising success over the past decade in both domestic and international markets. This success is of interest considering that commercial hardwood species in the PNW have traditionally been considered a low value by-product of the softwood inventory. While PNW hardwoods have enjoyed increased market acceptance, little market research has been done to characterize the hardwood industry or identify the factors that have contributed to its success. The objectives of this research were to: 1) explore the competitive conditions of the hardwood industry, 2) identify the range of products currently manufactured from hardwoods, 3) analyze current hardwood markets (domestic and international), 4) identify the factors that are perceived to restrict the growth of the hardwood industry in the PNW, and 5) assess future market and product opportunities for PNW hardwood products. Since the number of firms involved in hardwood lumber production in the PNW is relatively small (less than 15), a census of the hardwood industry was conducted. The PNW region, for the purpose of this research, consists of western Washington, western Oregon, and northern California. The survey was administered via fax to each firm in the sample frame. Thirteen hardwood manufacturers were contacted. Of the firms contacted, 10 completed and returned the survey, an effective response rate of 76.9%. Results The PNW hardwood lumber industry directly employs approximately 2,000 workers. Collectively, the hardwood lumber manufacturers surveyed in this study produced approximately 450 mmbf of lumber, with exports totaling approximately 126 mmbf or 28% of total production. The range of products manufactured included kiln dried and green lumber, pallet stock, veneer, plywood, agricultural boxes and crates, and chips. Hardwood chips represent the primary by-product and all of the chips produced are sold to pulp and paper manufacturers. Approximately half of the slabs and sawdust generated are sold (as chips and mulch, respectively) with the remainder being burned as hog fuel. Similarly, approximately one-third of the planer shavings and bark are sold for livestock bedding and landscaping bark, respectively, with the remainder being burned as hog fuel. While both large and small hardwood lumber manufacturers sell a substantial percentage of their production direct to the end-user, large manufacturers tend to rely on wholesalers to the exclusion of brokers. In the case of small manufacturers, the opposite is true and they tend to favor brokers while minimizing their use of wholesalers. Problems and Threats to the Hardwood Industry: The problems confronting manufacturers in the hardwood industry were categorized into three areas: domestic regulatory issues, domestic resource issues, and international regulatory issues. Survey respondents were asked to indicate the impact of each factor on the competitiveness of their firm. Respondents utilized a seven-point scale ranging from a value of 1 (Strong Negative Impact) to 7 (Strong Positive Impact). Domestic Regulatory Factors: The range of domestic regulatory factors identified in the survey included: federal harvest regulations, state forest practice regulations, and state taxes. Survey respondents indicated that all three domestic regulatory factors had a negative impact on the competitiveness of their firms. The mean scores for the three factors (state taxes, federal regulations, and state forest practice regulations) were 2.6, 2.8, and 2.9, respectively. Domestic Resource Factors: The specific hardwood resource factors examined in the survey included rising raw material prices, rapid price fluctuations (i.e., price volatility), labor quality, resource availability, and resource quality. Rapid price fluctuations and increasing raw material prices were perceived as having the most negative impact on competitiveness, receiving an average score of 2.8 and 3.1 respectively. Quality of labor (4.1) and resource quality (4.3) were each generally perceived to have relatively little impact on the overall competitiveness of the respondents’ firms. It is interesting to note that resource availability, with a mean score of 4.6, had a slightly positive impact on overall competitiveness. International Regulatory Factors: The international regulatory factors included in the survey were: regional trade agreements, tariff barriers, non-tariff barriers, and sustainable forest certification. The survey results suggest that environmental certification of wood products (3.4) and tariff barriers (3.4) were perceived to have a more negative impact on the competitiveness of hardwood manufacturers than were non-tariff barriers (3.6) and regional trade agreements (3.7), although the difference in score was small. Further analysis of the survey data showed that hardwood firms exporting to Europe perceived environmental certification as having a more adverse effect on their competitiveness than did firms exporting to Asia and North America. Marketing Variables: Survey respondents were asked to evaluate the importance of each variable to the competitiveness of their firm using a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (Not Important) to 7 (Very Important). The importance ratings for the individual marketing variables indicate that a firm’s reputation within the hardwood industry was identified as the single most important marketing variable, receiving a mean score of 6.7. Communicating regularly with customers, product quality control, and providing on time delivery all received relatively high mean scores of 6.3, suggesting that these variables are also very important. Efficient operation of production facilities, with a mean score of 6.1, and procuring raw material, with a mean score of 5.7, were also perceived to be highly important. It is interesting to note that virtually all of the marketing variables associated with innovation received relatively low importance ratings from survey respondents: developing new products (3.9), manufacturing specialty products (3.9), utilizing new marketing techniques (3.8), conducting market research (3.0), and performing promotional and advertising activities (2.5). Only a single marketing variable associated with innovation, product branding (5.2), was viewed as being relatively important. However, given the low level of importance attached to promotional activities, it remains problematic on how a company might successfully brand its products. Conclusions The hardwood industry has experienced substantial and solid growth over the past ten years despite the timber regulations that have restricted the harvest levels from federal and state forests. This growth has occurred in both the domestic US market as well as in foreign markets which now account for almost 28% of red alder production. While survey respondents did not feel that harvest restrictions had adversely impacted their industry, riparian zone regulations related to endangered salmon populations could have a severe impact on the hardwood resource, particularly if those regulations are vigorously applied to private forests. Respondents indicated that virtually none of the regulatory factors evaluated in the survey were viewed in a positive light, although few were perceived to have a strongly negative impact on the industry. Despite this, a variety of factors were perceived by respondents to have had a moderately negative impact on the hardwood industry. These factors included: state taxes, federal harvest restrictions, state forest practice regulations, hardwood log price volatility, and hardwood log price increases. It is interesting to note that while federal and state harvest restrictions were perceived to have a moderately negative impact on the industry, respondents indicated that resource availability has not yet had an adverse impact on the hardwood industry. Respondents indicated that those marketing variables that influenced a firm’s reputation and production efficiency were the most important in terms of positively impacting the firm’s performance. In contrast, virtually all of the marketing variables associated with acquiring market information and promoting innovation were perceived to have a negative impact on the firm’s performance. In general, these results seem to suggest that hardwood companies in the PNW are conservative and tend to place a low value on the marketing activities associated with innovation and product differentiation

Assessing innovativeness in the North American softwood sawmilling industry using three methods

Using a mail questionnaire targeted 500 softwood sawmills in the United States and Canada, firm innovativeness was assessed using three methods: (1) current technology, (2) self-evaluation, and (3) a new scale -- the propensity to create and adopt scale. The results of the these three methods were then compared to assess the performance of each method. Additionally, the relationship between firm innovativeness and financial performance was examined. Based on responses from 85 sawmills (19% adjusted response rate), the results show that both the self-evaluated and the propensity to create and adopt measures differentiate between mills with high and low levels of innovativeness. The composite of the propensity to create and adopt scale shows a higher reliability (Chronbach's alpha = 0.97) than the self-evaluated scale (Chronbach's alpha = 0.68). Significant relationships between sawmill performance and each of the three measures of innovativeness were seen, with the propensity to create and adopt scale are generally having the strongest positive relationships. Current technology was significantly related to sales growth, but not gross profit

CINTRAFOR Working Paper 78

Approximately 85 percent of all single family homes in the US include a deck or deck-like structure (e.g., patio, porch, or balcony), which is equivalent to roughly 30 million decks. Sixty percent of all new homes are constructed with a deck, while nearly 2.75 million decks are replaced on an annual basis (the average deck has a life expectancy of about eleven years). Furthermore, slightly over 4 percent of all households add a deck to their home on an annual basis, resulting in another 3 million new decks. Collectively, over 6.5 million new decks have been constructed throughout the US on an annual basis since 1995, which represents approximately $3 billion spent annually in deck materials. During the decade of the 1990s, the deck market grew at an average annual rate of 8.1 percent. Assuming a constant rate of growth of 8.1 percent, the deck market in 2010 could be as large as$6.5 billion. Despite the enormous size and healthy growth of the residential deck market in the US, very little research has been conducted evaluating consumer perceptions of the various deck materials available to them in the market. The objective of this study was to review secondary information regarding the residential deck material market in the US. Additionally, a survey of residential homebuilders in the US was conducted to characterize the industry’s use of various deck materials, as well as to assess the industry’s perceptions of these deck materials

CINTRAFOR Working Paper 73

The US residential construction industry, traditionally the largest market for softwood lumber, has undergone a period of uncharacteristically rapid change over the past decade. The effects of timber harvest restrictions in federal and state forests on softwood lumber price, price volatility, and product quality, combined with technological advances by producers of substitute materials, have contributed to increased use of material substitutes in residential construction. The objective of this research was to assess the extent of material substitution in residential construction and provide insight into the factors driving these changes. The results offer convincing evidence that softwood lumber has continued to lose market share in the residential construction industry and that builders remain concerned about its quality and price. The study also shows a shift on the part of builders towards a more favorable impression of the environmental impacts of substitute products, including steel and concrete, relative to softwood lumber. This study is based on a random sample of 2,400 residential construction firms segmented by geographic region and firm size. The survey was also mailed to the 100 largest home builders, as reported in Builder magazine. The overall response rate was 12.8% (12.1% of the random sample and 37.1% of the 100 largest firms). The results show that residential builders have steadily increased their use of substitute structural materials since 1995. Respondents reported increased use of all of substitute materials included in the survey. Almost all respondents reported using at least one substitute material (compared to 91% in 1995) and over 80% of the respondents reported using glulam beams, wood I-joists, and laminated veneer lumber (LVL). While use of steel, reinforced concrete and plastic-fiber lumber increased, engineered wood products emerged as the clear winners. On a regional basis, builders in the western US reported higher usage of all substitute products. In addition, the survey data suggest that large firms were more likely than small firms to try new substitute products, particularly finger jointed lumber, structural insulated panels, laminated veneer lumber, as well as newer engineered wood products such as parallel strand lumber and laminated strand lumber. The survey data were analyzed to assess the extent to which various structural products were used in walls, floors, and roofs, the three end-use applications that consume the greatest volume of structural lumber. The most commonly used products were softwood lumber, steel lumber, finger-jointed lumber, wood trusses, LVL, and wood I-joists. While softwood lumber still dominated wall framing in 1998, with an 83% market share, it has lost market share (down from 93% in 1995), particularly among large firms. Softwood lumber’s share of the floor framing market declined from 59% in 1995 to 42% in 1998. While it is still the most widely used product, with a 42% market share, the market share of wood I-joists has increased from 23% in 1995 to 39% in 1998. Softwood lumber used to frame roof rafters is no longer the dominant material used in residential roof systems. Survey data show that wood trusses increased slightly from 46% to 48%, while softwood lumber declined from 51% to 40%. To assess builders’ satisfaction with softwood lumber, respondents were asked to rate the level of the importance, and their corresponding level of satisfaction, with 13 softwood lumber attributes. The importance ratings obtained in 1998 were virtually identical to those reported in 1995. Softwood lumber straightness, strength, availability, and lack of defects were rated as the most important attributes. The survey data suggest that price is much more important to large firms than small firms. Builders reported that, while they were more satisfied with the price and price stability of softwood lumber in 1998 relative to 1995, they remained unhappy with softwood lumber quality, particularly with respect to lumber straightness and overall occurrence of defects. A gap analysis highlighted the difference between the mean importance ratings (where 7 indicates “extremely important” and 1 indicates “not important at all”) and the mean satisfaction ratings for each product attribute (where 7 indicates “extremely satisfied” and 1 indicates “extremely dissatisfied”). Survey findings indicate that while builders are less concerned with price issues than in 1995, they remain very concerned about the perceived decline in softwood lumber quality. The data provide clear evidence that residential home builders are least satisfied with product attributes they rate most important, suggesting that builders are dissatisfied with the value (defined as the ratio of price/quality) of softwood lumber. To provide a more concise interpretation of the importance and satisfaction of the different softwood lumber attributes, a factor analysis was performed to group together those softwood lumber attributes that are highly correlated to each other. The results of the factor analysis are almost identical with the results obtained from the 1995 survey and suggest that the 13 product attributes used to describe softwood lumber can be summarized into three factors: quality attributes, economic attributes, and technical attributes. Finally, the survey assessed builders’ perceptions of the environmental impact associated with using substitute products relative to softwood lumber. Although environmental marketing is not prevalent in the US forest products industry, most industry observers believe that it will become more important. While reduced environmental impact had the lowest importance rating of the 13 softwood lumber attributes, survey findings revealed that more builders in 1998 had a favorable perception of the environmental impact of substitute products, including steel and concrete, over softwood lumber than in 1995. This survey clearly indicates that softwood lumber has continued to be displaced by substitute materials in segments of the residential construction industry that it has traditionally dominated: walls, floors, and roofs. To a large degree, this loss of market share can be attributed to a perception among residential builders that the value of softwood lumber has declined: a direct result of rising prices and a perceived drop in lumber quality. Much of the loss in market share experienced by softwood lumber can be attributed to the increased use of engineered wood products. Many would argue that this is a normal process of product evolution within the forest products industry, attributed to technological advances in manufacturing processes driven by the changing forest resource. However, this study identified two trends that should concern managers in the forest products industry. First, the use of nonwood substitute building materials has increased significantly since 1995. Second, there is a growing perception among home builders that using non-wood building materials (including steel and reinforced concrete) is better for the environment than using softwood lumber. This trend away from wood products is likely to continue unless there is an effective response to the challenge posed by substitute materials