Viewpoint: reflections on the European Union's future by way of its past

Historians are frequently asked what the present can learn from the past, so it was no surprise that the question was put to a panel on early forms of European cooperation at the Library of the European Parliament in Brussels on 7 December 2016. My remit was to discuss European cooperation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when most of Europe was divided into composite states, one of which has been described as the precursor of the European Union. Large-scale international coalitions were frequent, and a distinct, European identity evolved. But it was also a time of almost constant civil and international wars: to understand Europe’s past it is necessary to consider unity alongside disunity

Preparation of β-glucan scaffolds by hydrogel foaming with supercritical CO2

New materials and processing techniques are being constantly developed for the production of scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Traditionally, foaming of polymers with supercritical fluids is one of the procedures used to create porous matrices. However, this technique cannot be applied to hydrophilic polymers which suffer degradation below their melting temperature. Foaming of hydrogels is an alternative to conventional gas foaming for the processing of hydrophilic polymers by dissolution of supercritical CO2 in the water of the hydrogels [1]. Through a fast depressurization, a highly porous structure is obtained, which results in the foamed matrix of polymer after water removal. In this work, β-glucan aerogels are produced by hydrogel foaming with supercritical CO2. Among polysaccharides, β-glucans have not been widely explored yet for tissue engineering applications. Depending on their origin, they posses different structures and properties. In our study, hydrogels were created from barley and yeast β-glucans. The produced aerogels were characterized in terms of morphology, mechanical properties and degradation rate in physiological fluids.MINECO (CTQ2013-44143-R)MINECO and UVa for Cierva fellowship (JCI-2012-14992)

Resource use efficiency is affected by phytoplankton community changes and geochemical shifts over time in a coastal upwelling area (NE Atlantic).

abstractTime series records are crucial to understand the dynamical processes that occur within phytoplankton communities. This is even more important in the context of the current global change that is already forcing alterations of unprecedented nature and might have unknown consequences for multiple ecosystem processes. Here we present time series analyses of the biogeochemical trends that occurred in the shelf of the Galician coast (station 2 off A Coruña, NE Atlantic) since late 1980s. Upwelling strength and sea temperature in the area have not changed substantially during the last decades. However, while nitrate fertilization from upwelled waters has remained relatively stable, phosphate concentration has increased leading to a negative trend in the N:P ratio. Those trends have impacted the phytoplankton resource use efficiency jointly with the evenness of the community. Phytoplankton used resources more efficiently at higher values of upwelling strength and at lower values of nutrient concentration and evenness. Phytoplankton communities that were more even had higher dinoflagellate diversity contrasting to dominance of diatoms that used resources more efficiently. Moreover, variability in resource use efficiency increased with evenness.IEO (RADIALES-11

Preparation of barley and yeast β-glucan scaffolds by hydrogel foaming: evaluation of dexamethasone release

Porous polymeric materials are studied in tissue engineering, because they can act as support for cell proliferation and as drug delivery vehicles for regeneration of tissues. Hydrogel foaming with supercritical CO2 is a suitable alternative for the creation of these structures, since it avoids the use of organic solvents and high temperature in the processing. In this work, β-glucans were used as raw materials to create hydrogels due to their easily gelation and biological properties. The enhancement of porosity was generated by a fast decompression after keeping the hydrogels in contact with CO2. The effect of the processing conditions and type of β-glucan in the final properties was assessed regarding morphological and mechanical properties. Finally, the ability of these materials to sustainably deliver dexamethasone was evaluated. The scaffolds had good morphology and provided a controlled release, thus being suitable to be used as scaffolds and drug delivery vehicles.Authors acknowledge Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) through project CTQ2013-44143-R and project PIP 063/ 147181 from Fundación General of the University of Valladolid for financial support. M. Salgado thanks to Ministerio de Educación, Ciencia y Deporte (MECD) for her FPU and mobility grants. S. Rodríguez-Rojo acknowledges to MINECO and UVa for her Juan de la Cierva fellowship (JCI-2012-14992). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement number REGPOT-CT2012-316331-POLARIS and from the project “Novel smart and biomimetic materials for innovative regenerative medicine approaches” RL1 − ABMR − NORTE-01-0124-FEDER-000016) co- financed by North Portugal Regional Operational Programme (ON.2–O Novo Norte), under the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF), through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Evaluation of learning outcomes of humanities curricula in medical students. A meta-review of narrative and systematic reviews

Objectives: To assess the expected learning outcomes of medical humanities subjects in medical studies curricula. To connect those expected learning outcomes with the types of knowledge to be acquired in medical education. Methods: Meta-review of systematic and narrative reviews. Cochrane Library, MEDLINE (Pubmed), Embase, CINAHL, and ERIC were searched. In addition, references from all the included studies were revised, and the ISI Web of Science and DARE were searched. Results: A total of 364 articles were identified, of which six were finally included in the review. Learning outcomes describe the acquisition of knowledge and skills to improve the relationship with patients, as well as the incorporation of tools to reduce burnout and promote professionalism. Programs that focus on teaching humanities promote diagnostic observation skills, the ability to cope with uncertainty in clinical practice, and the development of empathetic behaviors. Conclusion: The results of this review show heterogeneity in the teaching of medical humanities, both in terms of content and at the formal level. Humanities learning outcomes are part of the necessary knowledge for good clinical practice. Consequently, the epistemological approach provides a valid argument for including the humanities in medical curricula

Etiopathology of chronic tubular, glomerular and renovascular nephropathies: Clinical implications

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) comprises a group of pathologies in which the renal excretory function is chronically compromised. Most, but not all, forms of CKD are progressive and irreversible, pathological syndromes that start silently (i.e. no functional alterations are evident), continue through renal dysfunction and ends up in renal failure. At this point, kidney transplant or dialysis (renal replacement therapy, RRT) becomes necessary to prevent death derived from the inability of the kidneys to cleanse the blood and achieve hydroelectrolytic balance. Worldwide, nearly 1.5 million people need RRT, and the incidence of CKD has increased significantly over the last decades. Diabetes and hypertension are among the leading causes of end stage renal disease, although autoimmunity, renal atherosclerosis, certain infections, drugs and toxins, obstruction of the urinary tract, genetic alterations, and other insults may initiate the disease by damaging the glomerular, tubular, vascular or interstitial compartments of the kidneys. In all cases, CKD eventually compromises all these structures and gives rise to a similar phenotype regardless of etiology. This review describes with an integrative approach the pathophysiological process of tubulointerstitial, glomerular and renovascular diseases, and makes emphasis on the key cellular and molecular events involved. It further analyses the key mechanisms leading to a merging phenotype and pathophysiological scenario as etiologically distinct diseases progress. Finally clinical implications and future experimental and therapeutic perspectives are discussed

Evaluation of inflammatory cytokine secretion by human alveolar macrophages.

The alveolar macrophage (AM) secretes interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8), all of them inflammatory cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of many lung diseases. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the basal and stimulated secretion of these cytokines by human AMs. Human AMs were collected by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) from four healthy controls and 13 patients with diffuse interstitial lung disease (five cases of sarcoidosis, three of hypersensitivity pneumonitis and five of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis). AMs were cultured in the presence or absence of different concentrations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), phorbolmyristate and gamma-interferon. IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-8 levels were measured in BAL fluid and culture supernatant using specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The substance found to stimulate the secretion of inflammatory cytokines to the greatest extent was LPS at a concentration of 10 microg/ml. Regarding the secretion of IL-1beta, four observations were of interest: basal secretion was very low; LPS exerted a potent stimulatory effect; considerable within-group variability was observed; and there were no significant differences in the comparisons among groups. With respect to TNF-alpha secretion, the results were similar. The only striking finding was the higher basal secretion of this cytokine with respect to that of IL-1beta. Regarding the secretion of IL-6, the same pattern followed by TNF-alpha was found. However, it should be stressed that the increase induced by LPS was smaller than in the two previous cytokines. Regarding the secretion of IL-8, three findings were patent: the strong basal secretion of this cytokine; the moderate increase induced by LPS; and the existence of significant differences among the different groups with respect to the stimulated secretion of this cytokine, which reached maximum values in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Finally, it should be noted that the pattern of cytokines observed in the BAL fluid was similar to that found in cultured AM supernatants. The pattern of inflammatory cytokine secretion by AMs differs from that of other cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). In this sense. AMs secrete low amounts of IL-1, moderate amounts of TNF-alpha and IL-6, and high quantities of IL-8. Adherence is an important stimulus in the secretion of these molecules and LPS elicits an increased secretion inverse to the basal secretion. There is considerable individual variability in the secretion of inflammatory cytokines by the AMs of patients with interstitial lung disease and the AMs of these patients are primed in vivo for the secretion of these cytokines. The results of our study, carried out in vitro, can be extrapolated to the in vivo setting