Livestock depredation by snow leopard and Tibetan wolf: Implications for herders’ livelihoods in Wangchuck Centennial National Park, Bhutan

Abstract Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a serious problem in many parts of the world, and Bhutan’s Wangchuck Centennial National Park (WCNP) is no exception. Located in the remote alpine areas of the eastern Himalaya, wildlife species such as snow leopard (SL) and Tibetan wolf (TW) are reported to kill livestock in many parts of the Park. Such depredation is believed to have affected the livelihoods of high-altitude herding communities, resulting in conflicts between them. This study provides analysis on the extent of livestock depredation by wildlife predators such as SL and TW and examines its implications for the livelihoods of herding communities of Choekhortoe and Dhur regions of WCNP. Using semi-structured questionnaires, all herders (n = 38) in the study area were interviewed. The questions pertained to livestock population, frequency of depredation and income lost due to depredation in the last five years from 2012 to 2016. This study recorded 2,815 livestock heads in the study area, with an average herd size of 74.1 stock. The average herd size holding showed a decreasing trend over the years, and one of the reasons cited by the herders is depredation by SL and TW and other predators. This loss equated to an average annual financial loss equivalent to 10.2% (US$837) of their total per capita cash income. Such losses have resulted in negative impacts on herders’ livelihood; e.g. six herders (2012-2016) even stopped rearing livestock and resorted to an alternate source of cash income. The livestock intensification programmes, including pasture improvement through allowing controlled burning, and financial compensation, may be some potential short-term solutions to reduce conflict between herders and predators. Issuing permits for cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) collection only to the herders and instilling the sense of stewardship to highland herders may be one of the long-term solutions

Household Food Diversity and Food Habits in Changing Climate of Western Bhutan

Household food diversity index (HFDI) is qualitative measure of food consumption that reflects household access to a variety of food groups.  Food habit is the way people eat food which is influenced by various factors. Impacts of climate change poses a threat on food diversity and food habit and food security in agrarian Bhutanese. The study aims to analyze if household food diversity and food habits are affected by climate change in the three ecological zones. Household food diversity and food habits in Gasa, Punakha and Wangdue Phodrang districts (Dzongkhags) were compared and relationships were drawn. Household level data were collected using survey method from 368 randomly selected households, stratified into three agroecological zones, by administering pretested semi-structured questionnaire. The survey questions were designed using guidelines of Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).  Food components consumed in the last 24 hours were recorded and grouped into 10 food groups. Food diversity indices are computed at the levels of household, Chiwog (village), Gewog (block), Dzongkhag (district), and at the whole study area. Spearman’s correlation tests were used to evaluate relationship between household food diversity Index (HFDI) and Food habit with Climate Change and Elevation. Kruskal Wallis tests ascertained association among the same four sets of variables with three Dzongkhag (district) as independent variable.  In both sets of tests, the relationships were statistically significant. Climate change is affecting food diversity and food habits in the three agroecological zones. Introducing mass potato cultivation in Gasa, less water intensive rice variety in Punakha, and high yielding Jersey cows for dairy are recommended for food diversity enhancement in the study areas. Preserving traditional food culture like Aoolay from Gasa, and conserving biodiversity will contribute to mitigate impacts of climate change on food habits to achieve food security

Simple Allometry To Estimate The Aboveground Tree Biomass For Five Cool-Broadleaved Species Of Bhutan Himalaya

Million tons of carbon was found to be stored in the forest biomass with maximum storage capacity in the broadleaved trees. Developing tree biomass allometric equation being considered fundamental to determine the carbon sequestration potential of tree species. Thus, five broadleaved tree species of Quercus lamellosa, Beilschemidia sikkimensis, Castonopsis hystrix, Persea clerkania and Symplocos sumintia were destructively sampled using Randomized Branch Sampling technique (RBS) to develop allometry for aboveground biomass estimation in cool broadleaved forests in Bhutan. The total of 159 sample trees with minimum 32 trees from each species under different diameter class (5 cm < 90 cm), height class (4 m < 46 m) from four physiographic zones were sampled. The observed total aboveground dry biomass of the trees ranges from 4.12 < 5579.31 kg; 3.62 < 3464.51 kg; 5.99 < 3600.52; 8.89 < 3689.82 kg; kg and 7.08 < 2993.22 kg respectively for above five species. Linear regression was attributed to heteroskedasticity with un-equal distribution of the residual errors. While linearized regression with transformed variables exhibited the best fit line for biomass estimation. Significant prediction of aboveground tree biomass was observed with natural log base transformed linearized power function of DBH -tree height relationships (t (29) = 11.91, 1.63, p ≤ .001) R² = .98) followed by the transformed model of DBH as independent variable (t (30) = 34.31, p ≤ .001) R² = .97). Therefore, the study concluded that, linearized power function with antilog bias correction factor seemed better in predicting aboveground tree biomass of cool broadleaved species in Bhuta

Climate Change and Water Sources: A Case of Phobjikha and Gangtey Gewog, Wangdue Phodrang Dzongkhag, Bhutan

Water is a fundamental resource and for millions of people living in the Himalayas, springs are their only source of water for household and farming. To meet the water requirements, the communities depend on rain-fed springs which are highly sensitive to climate change. Rural communities in developing countries would be the most affected among other communities around the world as they have limited resources at their disposal. The objective of this study is to document the local people's awareness of climate change and their knowledge of water source dynamics constrained by climate change impacts in Phobjikha and Gangtey Gewogs, one of the Ramsar sites in Bhutan. A total of 248 households were interviewed using structured questionnaires employing simple random sampling techniques. Chi-Square test of independence was conducted. Results indicate that education is associated with awareness and water source dynamics. However, the majority of the residents do not have a clear understanding of how climate change affects water sources and how those sources should be protected. We recommend the relevant agency provide education and awareness on climate change impacts and training on water sources protection and management to local people. This would not only help local people enhance their resilience against climate change impacts but also protect their local resources for sustainable livelihoods. Also, Phobjikha and Gangtey are important locations to study climate change impacts in high altitude areas concerning both local peoples' adaptation strategies and dynamics of water as vital natural resources