Limiting phenomena related to the use of iron ore pellets in a blast furnace

Abstract Most of the iron in the world is produced using a blast furnace process, which has iron ore (iron oxides) and coke as its raw materials. When pellets are used in a blast furnace, the iron burden material is charged in the form of pellets and fine, iron-rich by-products are charged typically in the form of cold-bonded briquettes at the top of the blast furnace. Coke is the primary fuel and reductant in the blast furnace. Coke reacts with the oxygen of the blast air and forms carbon monoxide in the up-flowing gas, which reduces the descending iron oxide burden. In addition, carbon and hydrogen bearing reductants are injected from the tuyeres in the lower part of the furnace. Hydrogen partially replaces the carbon monoxide as a reducing agent and changes the composition of the reducing gas. The high temperature properties of the burden have a significant effect on the flow of reducing gas and formation of the cohesive zone which markedly affect the furnace efficiency. The raw materials are commonly stored outdoors and therefore include moisture in varying amounts. In addition, the briquette contains chemically bound water. The rate of injected reductants, the high temperature properties and the water content of the raw materials have significant effects on blast furnace performance. They cause various phenomena in the blast furnace which set limitations on the process. The limiting phenomena related to the use of pellets in the blast furnace were studied in this doctoral thesis with the aim of obtaining additional knowledge about the limiting phenomena. The results show that hydrogen increases the reduction rate of iron oxides at temperatures below 850 °C. High water vapour concentration causes a rapid conversion through a catalysed water-gas shift reaction at above 300 °C in a gas mixture similar to the one in the upper part of the blast furnace. The reduction rate of the cold-bonded briquette is higher than pellets due to a self-reducing effect. The phase transformations occurring in the briquette during reduction follow the path of phase equilibria. The softening of the pellet is caused by the formation of melt which initiates wüstite dissolution in the surrounding slag phase.Tiivistelmä Suurin osa maailmassa valmistettavasta raudasta tuotetaan masuuniprosessilla, jonka pääraaka-aineita ovat rautarikaste eli raudan oksidit ja koksi. Masuunissa, jossa käytetään pellettiä, rautarikaste panostetaan pelletin muodossa ja hienojakeiset rautapitoiset sivutuotteet tyypillisesti kylmäsidottuna brikettinä masuunin huipulta. Koksi on masuunin pääasiallinen polttoaine ja pelkistin, joka masuunin sisään puhallettavan ilman hapen kanssa reagoidessaan muodostaa ylöspäin virtaavaan kaasuun hiilimonoksidia, joka pelkistää masuunin kuilussa vajoavat rautaoksidit. Lisäksi yleensä käytetään hiiltä ja vetyä sisältäviä pelkistysaineita, jotka injektoidaan masuuniin alaosan hormeilta. Vety korvaa osittain hiilimonoksidia rautaoksidien pelkistimenä ja muuttaa pelkistävän kaasun koostumusta. Panosmateriaalien korkealämpötilaominaisuudet vaikuttavat suuresti kuilun kaasuvirtauksiin ja koheesiovyöhykkeen muodostumiseen masuunissa, mitkä vaikuttavat merkittävästi masuunin tehokkuuteen. Suurista määristä johtuen raaka-aineet varastoidaan usein ulkona, joten ne sisältävät kosteutta vaihtelevissa määrin. Lisäksi briketti sisältää kemiallisesti sitoutunutta vettä. Injektoitavien pelkistysaineiden käyttömäärällä, raaka-aineiden korkealämpötilaominaisuuksilla ja vesipitoisuudella on merkittäviä vaikutuksia masuunin toimintaan. Ne aikaansaavat masuunissa erilaisia ilmiöitä, jotka asettavat prosessille rajoituksia. Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkittiin näitä masuunille rajoituksia asettavia ilmiöitä ja pyrittiin lisäämään tietämystä niistä. Tulokset osoittavat, että vety nopeuttaa rautaoksidien pelkistymistä alle 850 °C lämpötilassa. Suuri vesihöyrymäärä johtaa nopeaan konversioon masuunin yläkuilun aluetta vastaavassa kaasuseoksessa yli 300 °C lämpötilassa katalysoidun vesikaasun siirtoreaktion kautta. Kylmäsidottu briketti pelkistyy pellettiä nopeammin itsepelkistymisen vaikutuksesta. Briketin pelkistyessään läpikäymät faasitransformaatiot seuraavat faasien tasapainotiloja. Pelletin pehmenemisen aiheuttaa sulan muodostuminen, joka laukaisee wüstiitin liukenemisen sitä ympäröivään sulaan kuonafaasiin

Emerging revenue models for personal data platform operators:when individuals are in control of their data

Abstract Purpose: This paper identifies emerging revenue models for personal data platform operators that facilitate the exchange of resources between an individual and a service provider for their mutual benefit. Context of this study is human-centered personal data management, which refers to individuals being able to control the use and access of their personal data for third-party services. Design: This research is conducted by analysing qualitative questionnaire data from 27 organizations from 12 different countries that are considered as forerunners in creating services in this context. Findings: Our study shows that personal data platform operators can generate revenue by combining transaction-, service-, connection- and membership fees. The study also reveals context-specific propositions for the foundation of revenue model creation. Monetising personal data in the form of advertising like we know it today is explicitly avoided among personal data platform operators. Research limitations/implications: This study calls for further research about how does providing control over personal data to individuals influence on business models of platform operators and other service providers in the market. Practical implications: For practitioners, this research offers new insights on revenue models that are being developed by the forerunners of human-centered personal data management approach in the European market. Originality/value: Revenue models for personal data platform operators when taking a human-centered approach to personal data management. Propositions to consider when creating revenue models in this context

Effect of charcoal and Kraft-lignin addition on coke compression strength and reactivity

Abstract The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of charcoal and Kraft-lignin additions on the structure, cold compression strength, and reactivity of bio-cokes produced at the laboratory scale. Bio-cokes were prepared by adding charcoal and Kraft-lignin (2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 wt %) to medium-volatile coal and coking the mixture with controlled heating rate (3.5 °C/min) up to 1200 °C. In addition, four particle sizes of charcoal were added with a 5 wt % addition rate to investigate the effect of particle size on the compression strength and reactivity. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to evaluate the pyrolysis behavior of coal and biomasses. Optical microscopy was used to investigate the interaction of coal and biomass components. It was found that by controlling the amount of charcoal and Kraft-lignin in the coal blend, the compression strength of the bio-cokes remains at an acceptable level compared to the reference coke without biomass addition. The cold compression strength of the charcoal bio-cokes was higher compared to Kraft-lignin bio-cokes. The reactivity of the bio-cokes with charcoal addition was markedly higher compared to reference coke and Kraft-lignin bio-cokes, mainly due to the differences in the physical properties of the parental biomass. By increasing the bulk density of the coal/biomass charge, the cold compression strength of the bio-cokes can be improved substantially

Reduction behavior of cold-bonded briquettes under simulated blast furnace conditions

Abstract Recycling of fine sized iron-rich by-products back to blast furnace (BF) process in the form of cement-bonded briquettes has become a common procedure in steel plants. Replacing part of the cement by Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) is also a common method to reduce cement consumption. When the briquettes are subjected to high temperature and reducing atmosphere in the BF, the cement phases decompose and the iron oxides undergo a series of phase transformations. To avoid early disintegration and to improve the performance of the briquettes, it is necessary to study these reactions during the reduction. In the present study the reduction behavior of the BF briquette samples was studied by experimental methods in a laboratory scale furnace, which simulates the conditions of the BF shaft in a CO–CO₂–N₂ atmosphere. With interrupted experiments the composition of the briquette was studied in different reduction stages of the BF shaft. The effect of GGBFS as a binder material on the reduction was studied with GGBFS containing briquette samples. The reduction of briquettes was compared to an olivine pellet which was used as a reference sample. Considerably higher reduction rate was detected with the briquettes compared to the pellet at 1100°C when reduced to metallic iron. 25–50 vol-% swelling in the briquette samples was detected during the wüstite-iron reduction step at 900–1000°C. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to observe the phase transformations in the Fe–Fe₂O₃–CaO system of the briquette and the results are in agreement with the theory

Evaluating the reduction-softening behaviour of blast furnace burden with an advanced test

Abstract A ferrous burden loses its permeability in the cohesive zone of a Blast Furnace (BF), where the iron burden materials soften and melt. A tailor-made, high-temperature furnace named ARUL (Advanced Reduction under Load) was used here to study the reduction-softening behaviour of acid and olivine pellets and basic sinter under simulated BF gas, temperature and pressure conditions. The ARUL test showed the best reduction-softening properties for the basic sinter. The sinter sample resisted up to 1329°C and achieved a reduction degree of 90.2% until a gas-impermeable structure was formed in a packed bed, whereas the acid pellet lost its permeability at 1160°C and only reduced to a reduction degree of 48.7%. The olivine pellet had intermediate reduction-softening properties with a final temperature of 1252°C and a final reduction degree of 68.7%. The differences between the test materials were assessed as being caused mainly by different chemistry, but it was also revealed that the sinter sample remained its macro-porosity markedly better in relation to the pellets, providing routes for reducing gases. The experimental results were compared to the phase diagrams calculated with the computational thermodynamic software FactSage. Phase diagrams for the 5-component FeO–SiO₂–CaO–MgO–Al2O₃ systems with constant CaO, MgO and Al₂O₃ contents were used to estimate the formation of liquid phases in the test materials. The computed phase diagrams gave an estimate of the liquid formation; however, some limitations were also found in the utilization of the computations because of the need to define the system in certain simplicity

Water-gas shift reaction in an olivine pellet layer in the upper part of blast furnace shaft

Abstract In order to reduce CO₂ emissions in the iron and steel industry, the utilization of H₂ gas as a reducing agent is a feasible option. The use of hydrogen bearing injectants in the lower blast furnace (BF) area increases H₂O concentration in the upper part of the BF shaft and the charging of moist burden has a similar effect as well. For efficient BF operation, it is important to investigate the effect of high H2 and therefore high H₂O concentrations in the reducing gas. This study focuses on the upper BF shaft area where hematite to magnetite reduction takes place and temperature is in the range of the forward water-gas shift reaction (WGSR). The effect of the WGSR on the composition of the reducing gas was estimated by experimental methods. A layer furnace (LF) was used to determine the temperature for the occurrence of the WGSR under simulated BF shaft conditions. The feed gas conversion was investigated in an olivine pellet layer. The WGSR was observed in an empty LF with CO–H₂O–N₂ gas at 500°C. With CO–CO₂–H₂O–N₂ gas the WGSR was observed in an olivine pellet layer at 400–450°C and in a pre-reduced magnetite pellet layer at 300–400°C indicating the catalyzing effect of magnetite on the WGSR. The results offer additional information about the effect of high H₂O concentration on the composition of the reducing gas through the WGSR. The occurrence of the WGSR in the actual BF and its effects were discussed

Effect of adding limestone on the metallurgical properties of iron ore pellets

Abstract In order to produce high-quality pellets with good reducibility and superior softening and melting properties, certain additives are important. One of the most common fluxing materials for iron ore pellet production is limestone, which is mainly calcium oxide (CaO). In this study, the effect of adding limestone on the metallurgical properties (reducibility, swelling, cracking, softening temperature, Low-Temperature Disintegration, Cold Crushing Strength) of acid iron ore pellets was investigated using a comprehensive set of metallurgical laboratory tests. The dynamic reducibility test under unconstrained conditions showed a higher final degree of reduction in limestone-fluxed pellets compared to non-fluxed ones. Also in the reduction–softening test under load, the fluxed pellets reduced to a higher final degree of reduction, although they started to soften at a somewhat lower temperature. Swelling and cracking of the pellets during dynamic reduction were slightly increased by the addition of limestone, but not remarkably. Adding limestone slightly decreased the Cold Crushing Strength and increased the formation of fines in the hematite to magnetite reduction stage in the LTD test. However, all four parameters (CCS, LTD, swelling, and cracking) are within the acceptable range for blast furnace use

Integrin α11β1 is a receptor for collagen XIII

Collagen XIII is a conserved transmembrane collagen mainly expressed in mesenchymal tissues. Previously, we have shown that collagen XIII modulates tissue development and homeostasis. Integrins are a family of receptors that mediate signals from the environment into the cells and vice versa. Integrin α11β1 is a collagen receptor known to recognize the GFOGER (O=hydroxyproline) sequence in collagens. Interestingly, collagen XIII and integrin α11β1 both have a role in the regulation of bone homeostasis. To study whether α11β1 is a receptor for collagen XIII, we utilized C2C12 cells transfected to express α11β1 as their only collagen receptor. The interaction between collagen XIII and integrin α11β1 was also confirmed by surface plasmon resonance and pull-down assays. We discovered that integrin α11β1 mediates cell adhesion to two collagenous motifs, namely GPKGER and GF(S)QGEK, that were shown to act as the recognition sites for the integrin α11-I domain. Furthermore, we studied the in vivo significance of the α11β1-collagen XIII interaction by crossbreeding α11 null mice (Itga11−/−) with mice overexpressing Col13a1 (Col13a1oe). When we evaluated the bone morphology by microcomputed tomography, Col13a1oe mice had a drastic bone overgrowth followed by severe osteoporosis, whereas the double mutant mouse line showed a much milder bone phenotype. To conclude, our data identifies integrin α11β1 as a new collagen XIII receptor and demonstrates that this ligand-receptor pair has a role in the maintenance of bone homeostasis

Correct expression and localization of collagen XIII are crucial for the normal formation and function of the neuromuscular system

Abstract Transmembrane collagen XIII has been linked to maturation of the musculoskeletal system. Its absence in mice (Col13a1−/−) results in impaired neuromuscular junction (NMJ) differentiation and function, while transgenic overexpression (Col13a1oe) leads to abnormally high bone mass. Similarly, loss‐of‐function mutations in COL13A1 in humans produce muscle weakness, decreased motor synapse function and mild dysmorphic skeletal features. Here, analysis of the exogenous overexpression of collagen XIII in various muscles revealed highly increased transcript and protein levels, especially in the diaphragm. Unexpectedly, the main location of exogenous collagen XIII in the muscle was extrasynaptic, in fibroblast‐like cells, while some motor synapses were devoid of collagen XIII, possibly due to a dominant negative effect. Concomitantly, phenotypical changes in the NMJs of the Col13a1oe mice partly resembled those previously observed in Col13a1−/− mice. Namely, the overall increase in collagen XIII expression in the muscle produced both pre‐ and postsynaptic abnormalities at the NMJ, especially in the diaphragm. We discovered delayed and compromised acetylcholine receptor (AChR) clustering, axonal neurofilament aggregation, patchy acetylcholine vesicle (AChV) accumulation, disrupted adhesion of the nerve and muscle, Schwann cell invagination and altered evoked synaptic function. Furthermore, the patterns of the nerve trunks and AChR clusters in the diaphragm were broader in the adult muscles, and already prenatally in the Col13a1−/− mice, suggesting collagen XIII involvement in the development of the neuromuscular system. Overall, these results confirm the role of collagen XIII at the neuromuscular synapses and highlight the importance of its correct expression and localization for motor synapse formation and function