Antibiotic consumption in Portugal: 2010 and 2011

The use of antibiotics has contributed to a marked decrease in morbidity caused by communicable and infec- tious diseases over the past few years. The aim of our study is to evaluate the use of antibiotics in clinic in 2010 and 2011, considering two different methodologies: the defined daily dose per 1000 inhabitants per day (DHD) and the number of packages per 1000 inhabitants per day (PHD)

Computational Results on Membership in R&D Cooperation Networks: To Be or Not To Be in a Research Joint Venture

In this study, we analyze firms’ membership in R&D (Research and Development) cooperation networks. Our main research hypothesis is that the membership in cooperation networks is related to the degree of the knowledge spillover. The approach focus on both cost symmetry and cost asymmetry. For that purpose, our work is developed in two tasks: we first develop an analytical model with three stages: in the first, firms decide whether to participate in a cooperative research network; in the second they simultaneously choose the level of R&D output, and finally firms choose the level of output through Cournot competition under both cost symmetry and cost asymmetry. Then we proceed with computational simulations in order to verify our hypothesis. From our results, we were able to conclude that cooperation leads to an improvement on RJV firms’ position in the market as it allows them to produce more than others with the same production conditions. Additionally, cooperating firms have to spend fewer resources on research, which turns the network a tremendous success on the productive efficiency level.R&D, networks, spillover, simulation, RJV

The Responsibility of Transnational Corporations in the Realization of Children’s Rights

Transnational Corporations (TNCs), especially those operating in developing countries, have enormous socio-economic power— sometimes more than states. Many TNCs seek poor and unregulated markets, employing cheap, underage and fragile children, so they can create an economic competitive advantage and meet increasing international marketing demands. While many of them bring business and prosperity to a region, the damages can outweigh these benefits they perpetuate when behaving irresponsibly - occasionally irreparably - detrimentally impacting on children’s enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. The problem is exacerbated when national governments are unable or unwilling to regulate TNCs’ operations. It shall be argued that despite the private legal status of TNCs, they are subjected to human rights obligations because some forms of exploitative child labor has become universally condemned and thus possess jus cogens status. The analysis shows that there is no deficiency within international human right standards regarding child labor and these maybe interpreted as giving direct obligations to TNCs to respect, protect and fulfill children’s rights. The rising numbers of exploitative child labor, however, raises serious doubts about the effectiveness of those standards to adequately regulate powerful TNCs, which are not limited to concepts of territorial sovereignty. The results of the research depicts the desperate need for a renewed international legal framework going beyond soft law approaches, to clearly define legal obligations and methods to enforce responsibilities on: TNCs; states; other non-state actors; and the child itself, which is key to ensuring effective protection and fulfillment of children’s rights

The Responsibility of Transnational Corporations in the Realization of Children’s Rights

Transnational Corporations (TNCs), especially those operating in developing countries, have enormous socio-economic power— sometimes more than states. Many TNCs seek poor and unregulated markets, employing cheap, underage and fragile children, so they can create an economic competitive advantage and meet increasing international marketing demands. While many of them bring business and prosperity to a region, the damages can outweigh these benefits they perpetuate when behaving irresponsibly - occasionally irreparably - detrimentally impacting on children’s enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. The problem is exacerbated when national governments are unable or unwilling to regulate TNCs’ operations. It shall be argued that despite the private legal status of TNCs, they are subjected to human rights obligations because some forms of exploitative child labor has become universally condemned and thus possess jus cogens status. The analysis shows that there is no deficiency within international human right standards regarding child labor and these maybe interpreted as giving direct obligations to TNCs to respect, protect and fulfill children’s rights. The rising numbers of exploitative child labor, however, raises serious doubts about the effectiveness of those standards to adequately regulate powerful TNCs, which are not limited to concepts of territorial sovereignty. The results of the research depicts the desperate need for a renewed international legal framework going beyond soft law approaches, to clearly define legal obligations and methods to enforce responsibilities on: TNCs; states; other non-state actors; and the child itself, which is key to ensuring effective protection and fulfillment of children’s rights

The determinants of location choice: Single plants versus multi-plants

This paper adopts a count data model to explore the distinction between single plant and multi-plant location choices. It is hypothesized that start-up location decisions would be determined by supply variables (land, labour and capital costs, workforce and technological characteristics); demand variables (market size and market accessibility) and agglomeration economies. We use plant data and focus on location choices within Portuguese municipalities. Our research shows that new multi-plants are particularly sensitive to urbanization economies, land costs and the size of the local market, while new single plants are more responsive to labour costs, both localization and urbanization economies and accessibility to main markets

Proximity and R&D Cooperation between firms: Location, R&D and Output in an Oligopoly with Spillovers

This paper aims at explaining how proximity between firms affects cooperation in R&D. For that purpose, it is proposed a three-stage game amongst three firms where each firm decides about location, R&D and output. Firms’ decision about location determines a R&D spillover, which is inversely related to the distance between firms. R&D output is assumed to be cost reducing and exhibit diminishing returns. Cooperation is only allowed in the R&D stage. Our results allow us to conclude that there is a positive relationship between R&D output equilibrium and the distance between firms when firms act independently. When firms cooperate in R&D, R&D output for a cooperating firm increases with the degree of information sharing between them, as well as with a reduction of the distance between cooperating firms. Firms’ decision about location is also affected by R&D activities: if R&D activities run independently, the clustering of firms only occurs for a convex spillover function; if R&D activities run cooperatively, clustering is always observed if there is an increased information sharing between firms. Keywords: Location, R&D cooperation, R&D spillover

Models of Spatial Competition: A critical review

According to Duranton (2008), the main focus of spatial economics is the location choice of the economic agents. In order to explain the location and the agglomeration of agents in certain locations, one must relax the core assumptions of the neoclassic competitive framework. According to Fujita and Thisse (2002), three alternatives emerged and had huge attention in the literature: the assumption of heterogeneity of locations, as in comparative advantage models or in pioneering static location models; the externality models, in which economic activity endogenously generates spillovers that motivates the agglomeration of the agents; the assumption of imperfect markets, implying that the agents have to interact with each other, as in spatial competition models or in the monopolistic competition approach. This review will focus on the development of spatial competition models. Specifically, the main purpose is to study models in which the location choice by firms plays a major role. Therefore, after a brief review of the roots of spatial competition models, this paper intends to offer a critical analysis over the recent developments in spatial competition modeling. The starting point is the recognition of the increased importance of this topic through the quantification of the research in this field by using bibliometric tools. After that, this study proceeds by identifying the main research paths within spatial competition modeling. Specifically, the type of strategie (Bertrand vs. Cournot competition) and its implications over location equilibria are discussed. Additionally, it is presented a comparison of the impact of the most studied assumptions in literature, that respect to the market (linear vs. circular), production costs, transportation costs, as well as the number of firms. Finally, the type of information (complete vs. incomplete) and its effects over the equilibria are also discussed

Batch and fed-batch cultures of E. coli TB1 at different oxygen transfer rates: Effect of stirring and oxigen partial pressures on cell growth and cytochrome b5 production

Batch cultures of E. coli TB1/pUC13 were carried out at different oxygen transfer rates (OTR) enhanced by the increase of stirring rate and by the increase of air total pressure of the bioreactor. These two variables showed to have little effect on cell growth but a negative effect on cytochrome b5 (recombinant protein) production. However, this effect was more significant of high stirring rates than for values of pressure up to 0.4 MPa. The effects of stirring and pressure were also investigated for fed-batch mode operation. In this type of cell cultivation high cell densities are reached, thus a high capacity of oxygen supply of the system is required. To compare the two ways of improving OTR, cell behaviour was followed in two bioreactors at different operational conditions giving the same maximum OTR value. The first one operated at a high stirring rate (500 rpm) and at atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) and the other one at high air pressure (0.48 MPa) and low stirring rate. The increased pressure seemed to be a better way of ensuring an adequate oxygen supply to a culture of E. coli TB1 cells than an increased stirring rate. For the high pressure experiment a higher cellular density was reached, as well as a higher cyt.b5 expression which led to a 4-fold increase in final productivity. These experiments showed that bioreactor pressurization can be successfully used as a means of enhancing oxygen mass transfer to shear sensitive cell cultures.Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) – PRAXIS XXI