CONSEQÜÊNCIAS ECOLÓGICAS DA FRAGMENTAÇÃO FLORESTAL NA AMAZÔNIA

Um grande número de trabalhos tem sido desenvolvido com o intuito de determinar as conseqüências ecológicas da fragmentação florestal na Amazônia e aqui apresentamos uma síntese dos principais resultados destes trabalhos. A fragmentação da floresta tem múltiplos efeitos sobre a biota amazônica, podendo alterar a diversidade e a composição das comunidades nos fragmentos e mudar processos ecológicos como a polinização, a ciclagem de nutrientes e o estoque de carbono. As mudanças ecológicas que ocorrem em função do isolamento são em geral proporcionais ao tamanho do fragmento. Conseqüentemente, fragmentos pequenos tendem a ter menos espécies como um todo (menor riqueza de espécies) e menor densidade de espécies por unidade de área do que fragmentos grandes. Os fragmentos de floresta na Amazônia parecem ser particularmente vulneráveis aos efeitos de borda. Sob condições naturais as bordas são raras nas florestas tropicais, mas quando a floresta é fragmentada a quantidade de bordas aumenta dramaticamente. Estas novas bordas são artificiais, criando uma transição abrupta entre a floresta e a área alterada adjacente. Nas florestas de terra-firme da Amazônia central, um dos efeitos de borda mais proeminentes é o aumento na taxa de mortalidade de árvores, que causa um aumento na incidência de clareiras no dossel próximo às bordas. Os efeitos de borda também causam alterações nos gradientes físicos e na abundância das espécies nos fragmentos. Em geral as espécies que são mais vulneráveis à fragmentação florestal tendem a responder negativamente à formação de bordas, necessitam de áreas extensas, e/ou não são tolerantes a matriz (isto é, o mosaico de habitats modificados que circundam os fragmentos de floresta), enquanto que as espécies que são resilientes aos efeitos da fragmentação florestal geralmente têm características opostas

Subterranean Pitfall Traps: Is It Worth Including Them in Your Ant Sampling Protocol?

The use of subterranean traps is a relatively novel method to sample ants, and few studies have evaluated its performance relative to other methods. We collected ants in forests, savannas, and crops in central Brazil using subterranean pitfall traps and conventional pitfall traps placed on the soil surface. Sampling duration, soil depth, and sprinkling vegetal oil around traps all tended to affect the number of species found in subterranean traps. Sixteen percent of the species collected in subterranean traps were unique, and most of these had cryptobiotic morphology (i.e., were truly hypogaeic species). Surprisingly, however, subterranean and conventional traps were similarly efficient at capturing cryptobiotic species. Furthermore, subterranean traps captured far fewer species in total than conventional traps (75 versus 220 species), and this was true in all three habitats sampled. Sampling completeness increased very little using a combination of conventional and subterranean traps than using just conventional traps

Growth and survival of incipient ant colonies in two Amazonian ant-plants: Effects of habitat, host-plant, and mode of colony founding (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

We assessed the effects of habitat type, host-plant species, and mode of colony founding on the survivorship and growth of incipient colonies of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) associated with two Amazonian ant-plants. We experimentally colonized seedlings of Maieta guianensis with founding queens of Crematogaster laevis or Pheidole minutula, and of Tococa bullifera with Azteca sp., C. laevis, or P. minutula queens. Seedlings were then transplanted to two habitats: stream edges or forest interior, where they remained for 75 days. To prevent subsequent, natural ant colonizations we caged plants with a fine mesh. Overall, levels of mortality were greater for small bodied queens of P. minutula (50-75%), than for larger bodied queens of C. laevis (38.7-53.6%) and Azteca sp. (12.5-25.0%). While seedlings grew faster along stream edges, in general, habitat type did not significantly affect colony survival and growth. The exception to this trend was observed for colonies of P. minutula, which survived better in seedlings located on stream edges. We found a trend of greater survival of C. laevis in T. bullifera than in M. guianensis, but no effect on colony growth. In contrast, the performance of P. minutula in T. bullifera was very poor, probably because T. bullifera is not a usual host of P. minutula. Mode of colony founding did not affect survival of P. minutula colonies in M. guianensis. However, pleometrotic colonies (with 5 queens) grew significantly faster than single queen colonies, and at a rate comparable to colonies of C. laevis. This suggests that pleometrosis can be a beneficial strategy, at least when levels of intra- and inter-specific competition among incipient colonies is high

Do an ecosystem engineer and environmental gradient act independently or in concert to shape juvenile plant communities? Tests with the leaf-cutter ant Atta laevigata in a Neotropical savanna

Background Ecosystem engineers are species that transform habitats in ways that influence other species.While the impacts of many engineers have been well described, our understanding of how their impact varies along environmental gradients remains limited. Although disentangling the effects of gradients and engineers on biodiversity is complicated—the gradients themselves can be altered by engineers—doing so is necessary to advance conceptual and mathematical models of ecosystem engineering. We used leaf-cutter ants (Atta spp.) to investigate the relative influence of gradients and environmental engineers on the abundance and species richness of woody plants. Methods We conducted our research in South America’s Cerrado. With a survey of plant recruits along a canopy cover gradient, and data on environmental conditions that influence plant recruitment, we fit statistical models that addressed the following questions: (1) Does A. laevigata modify the gradient in canopy cover found in our Cerrado site? (2) Do environmental conditions that influence woody plant establishment in the Cerrado vary with canopy cover or proximity to A. laevigata nests? (3) Do A. laevigata and canopy cover act independently or in concert to influence recruit abundance and species richness? Results We found that environmental conditions previously shown to influence plant establishment in the Cerrado varied in concert with canopy cover, but that ants are not modifying the cover gradient or cover over nests. However, ants are modifying other local environmental conditions, and the magnitude and spatial extent of these changes are consistent across the gradient. In contrast to prior studies, we found that ant-related factors (e.g., proximity to nests, ant changes in surface conditions), rather than canopy cover, had the strongest effect on the abundance of plant recruits. However, the diversity of plants was influenced by both the engineer and the canopy cover gradient. Discussion Atta laevigata in the Cerrado modify local conditions in ways that have strong but spatially restricted consequences for plant communities. We hypothesize that ants indirectly reduce seedling establishment by clearing litter and reducing soil moisture, which leads to seed and seedling desiccation. Altering soil nutrients could also reduce juvenile growth and survivorship; if so these indirect negative effects of engineering could exacerbate their direct effects of harvesting plants. The effects of Atta appear restricted to nest mounds, but they could be long-lasting because mounds persist long after a colony has died or migrated. Our results support the hypothesis that leaf-cutter ants play a dominant role in Cerrado plant demography. We suggest the ecological and economic footprint of these engineers may increase dramatically in coming decades due to the transformation of the Cerrado by human activities

Resilient networks of ant-plant mutualists in amazonian forest fragments

Background: The organization of networks of interacting species, such as plants and animals engaged in mutualisms, strongly influences the ecology and evolution of partner communities. Habitat fragmentation is a globally pervasive form of spatial heterogeneity that could profoundly impact the structure of mutualist networks. This is particularly true for biodiversity-rich tropical ecosystems, where the majority of plant species depend on mutualisms with animals and it is thought that changes in the structure of mutualist networks could lead to cascades of extinctions. Methodology/Principal Findings: We evaluated effects of fragmentation on mutualistic networks by calculating metrics of network structure for ant-plant networks in continuous Amazonian forests with those in forest fragments. We hypothesized that networks in fragments would have fewer species and higher connectance, but equal nestedness and resilience compared to forest networks. Only one of the nine metrics we compared differed between continuous forest and forest fragments, indicating that networks were resistant to the biotic and abiotic changes that accompany fragmentation. This is partially the result of the loss of only specialist species with one connection that were lost in forest fragments. Conclusions/Significance: We found that the networks of ant-plant mutualists in twenty-five year old fragments are similar to those in continuous forest, suggesting these interactions are resistant to the detrimental changes associated with habitat fragmentation, at least in landscapes that are a mosaic of fragments, regenerating forests, and pastures. However, ant-plant mutualistic networks may have several properties that may promote their persistence in fragmented landscapes. Proactive identification of key mutualist partners may be necessary to focus conservation efforts on the interactions that insure the integrity of network structure and the ecosystems services networks provide. © 2012 Passmore et al

Ant-tended hemiptera in Amazonian myrmecophytes: Patterns of abundance and implications for mutualism function (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

We assessed how the abundance of ant-tended Hemiptera associated with two Amazonian myrmecophytes, Tococa bullifera and Maieta guianensis, varied as a function of resident ant species. We collected five species or morpho-species of adult hemiptera in the domatia of M. guianensis, with four of these species also found in Tococa bullifera. Maieta guianensis plants inhabited by Crematogaster laevis had over four-fold more hemiptera in them than plants inhabited by Pheidole minutula. In contrast, the density of hemiptera in Tococa bullifera domatia was independent of the species of ant resident. For each of the two ant species inhabiting Maieta guianensis, there was a positive and significant relationship between the abundance of hemiptera and workers inhabiting a plant. This relationship was also significant and positive for the Tococa bullifera plants inhabited by C. laevis. However, there was no relationship between Azteca worker and hemipteran density, although there was a trend towards a positive relationship. Our results indicate that hemipteran abundance can vary significantly between different myrmecophyte species, but that the nature of this relationship is mediated by the identity of the ant associate. Because hemipterans are herbivores, the costs and benefits of different ant partners to the host plant may vary in ways that are often overlooked