Compliance in own-check systems poses challenges in small-scale slaughterhouses

Small-scale slaughterhouses (SHs) face many challenges, not least due to the requirements of food safety legislation. Food business operators' (FBOs') own-check system is very important for food safety, but its proper implementation can be quite difficult and laborious for small-scale SHs. In the European Union, the importance not only of food safety but also facilitation of local food production, including small-scale slaughtering, is highlighted. The aim of our study was to assess compliance with legislation of own-check systems, including six own-check programmes and HACCP, in small-scale SHs. The FBOs' opinions of the implementation of own-check systems were also sought to elucidate possible obstacles in implementation. Our results showed that the best compliance in own-check programmes was achieved in temperature of storage rooms and traceability. FBOs also evaluated these programmes as necessary. However, FBOs' perceived necessity of own-check programmes did not always lead to compliance, as was the case with labelling and HACCP. Instead, in HACCP laboriousness and compliance showed a negative correlation (p <0.05). In addition to laboriousness, costs of own-check programmes, specifically concerning microbiological sampling requirements, appeared to influence compliance, with many of the small-scale SHs poorly following sampling requirements. FBOs also noted the high costs of the non-edible by-product programme. Moreover, the results show that official veterinarians' assessment of compliance was significantly higher than that of the researcher, which warrants further investigation. This study reveals that many small-scale SHs in Finland struggle with food safety requirements. Amendments of some of the requirements to ease the burden of FBOs are proposed. HACCP in particular is suggested to be simplified. In addition, ways to improve food safety and official control in small-scale SHs are discussed.Peer reviewe

Whole genome sequence analysis of antimicrobial resistance genes, multilocus sequence types and plasmid sequences in ESBL/AmpC Escherichia coli isolated from broiler caecum and meat

Plasmid-encoded extended-spectrum β-lactamase and AmpC gene-carrying Escherichia coli (ESBL/AmpC E. coli) is an increasing cause of human infections worldwide. Increasing carbapenem and colistin resistance further complicate treatment of these infections. The aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of ESBL/AmpC E. coli in different broiler flocks and farms, as well as in broiler meat, in a country with no antimicrobial usage in broiler production. An additional goal was to assess the genetic characteristics of ESBL/AmpC E. coli isolates by using whole genome sequencing (WGS). Altogether 520 caecal swabs and 85 vacuum-packed broiler meat samples were investigated at the slaughterhouse level. WGS of the bacterial isolates revealed acquired antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes, multilocus sequence types (MLST) and plasmid sequences. ESBL/AmpC E. coli was identified in 92 (18%) of the caecum and 27 (32%) of the meat samples. ESBL/AmpC E. coli-carrying birds derived from six (33%) out of 18 farms. Of the two blaESBL/AmpC genes detected by PCR, blaCMY-2 (96%) was predominant over blaCTX-M-1 (4%). Furthermore, WGS revealed an additional AMR gene sul2. Carbapenemase, colistin, and other AMR genes were not detected from the isolates of either the caecal or meat samples. Altogether seven MLSTs (ST101, ST117, ST212, ST351, ST373, ST1594 and an unknown ST) and a variety of different plasmid sequences (IncB/O/K/Z, IncI1, IncFII, IncII, IncFIB, IncFIC, IncX1 and an additional set of Col-plasmids) were detected. This is the first study on genomic epidemiology of ESBL/AmpC E. coli on broiler farms and flocks with no antimicrobial usage, by using WGS analysis. Results show that ESBL/AmpC E. coli occurrence is common both in the caecum and in the packaged meat. However, compared to other European countries, the occurrence is low and the presence of AMR genes other than blaCMY-2 and blaCTX-M-1 is rare. More studies are needed to understand the ESBL/AmpC E. coli occurrence in broiler production to prevent the meat from contamination during slaughter and processing, thereby also preventing zoonotic transmission of ESBL/AmpC E. coli. Additionally, more studies are needed to understand the ecology and fitness cost of Enterobacteriaceae plasmids in animal production in order to prevent their acquisition of plasmid-encoded antimicrobial resistance genes such as carbapenem and colistin resistance genes, as this would pose a great hazard to food safety.Peer reviewe

Low occurrence of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in clinical, food, and environmental samples : a methodological problem

While Yersinia enterocolitica is an important pathogen, which can cause yersiniosis in humans and animals, its epidemiology remains obscure. The pig is the major reservoir of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica of bioserotype 4/O:3, the most common type found in humans. Y. enterocolitica is thought to be a significant food-borne pathogen, although pathogenic isolates have seldom been recovered from foods. The low isolation rate of this pathogenic bacterium in natural samples, including clinical, food, and environmental samples, may be due to the limited sensitivity of culture methods. During the last decade, numerous DNA-based methods, such as PCR and colony hybridization assays, have been designed to detect pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in natural samples more rapidly and with better sensitivity than can be achieved by culture methods. In addition, the occurrence of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in natural samples is clearly higher with PCR than with culture methods. The methods available for detection of pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in natural samples are reviewed in this article

Meat Juice Serology and Improved Food Chain Information as Control Tools for Pork-Related Public Health Hazards

The seroprevalence of Salmonella spp., pathogenic Yersinia spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. was studied in 1353 finishing pigs from 259 farms that were allocated according to farm types: large fattening farms (1000 pig places), small fattening farms (<1000 pig places) and farrow-to-finish farms. The antibodies were analysed with commercial ELISA kits in meat juice samples that were collected at Finnish slaughterhouses. Salmonella antibodies were rare (3% of pigs, 14% of farms) when the cut-off optical density (OD) value 0.2 was used. Antibodies to pathogenic Yersinia spp. and T.gondii were detected in 57% of pigs and 85% of farms (OD 0.3) and in 3% of pigs and 9% of farms (OD 0.15), respectively. No antibodies to Trichinella spp. were detected (OD 0.3). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) considers Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, T.gondii and Trichinella spp. as the most relevant biological hazards in the context of meat inspection of pigs. The seroprevalence of these important zoonotic pathogens was low in Finland, except that of Yersinia. The seroprevalence of Toxoplasma was significantly higher in pigs originating from small-scale fattening farms (P<0.05). Strong positive correlation was observed at the animal level between Salmonella and Yersinia seropositivity and between Salmonella and Toxoplasma seropositivity (P<0.05). We suggest that these results reflect the level and importance of biosecurity measures applied on the farms. Meat juice serology at slaughter is a useful tool for targeting measures to control these pathogens. The information obtained from analyses should be used as part of the food chain information (FCI).Peer reviewe

Yersinia enterocolitica strains associated with human infections in Switzerland 2001-2010

Yersinia enterocolitica infections are common in humans. However, very scarce data are available on the different biotypes and virulence factors of human strains, which has proved to be problematic to assess the clinical significance of the isolated strains. In this study, the presence of the ail gene and distribution of different bio- and serotypes among human Y. enterocolitica strains and their possible relation to the genotype and antimicrobial resistance were studied. In total, 128 Y. enterocolitica strains isolated from human clinical samples in Switzerland during 2001-2010 were characterised. Most (75 out of 128) of the Y. enterocolitica strains belonged to biotypes 2, 3 or 4 and carried the ail gene. One of the 51 strains that belonged to biotype 1A was also ail positive. Most of the ail-positive strains belonged to bioserotype 4/O:3 (47 out of 76) followed by 2/O:9 (22 out of 76). Strains of bioserotype 4/O:3 were dominant among patients between 20 and 40years old and strains of biotype 1A dominate in patients over 40years. Strains belonging to biotypes 2, 3 and 4, which all carried the ail gene, exhibited a high homogeneity with PFGE typing. Y. enterocolitica 2/O:5,27 and 2/O:9 strains showed resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and cefoxitin, but Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 strains did no

The usability of the food chain information for visual meat inspection of pigs

For efficient meat inspection, it is important beforehand to identify those batches presenting a high potential risk for meat condemnation. The food chain information (FCI) provided by the pig producer, covers important information on the health status of the animals to be slaughtered, and therefore is essential for risk-based meat inspection

Comparison of the biotypes of Yersinia enterocolitica isolated from pigs, cattle and sheep at slaughter and from humans with yersiniosis in Great Britain during 1999-2000

Aims: To investigate the relationship between livestock carriage of Yersinia enterocolitica and human disease. The biotypes/serotypes of strains recovered from the faeces of pigs, cattle and sheep at slaughter during a national survey in Great Britain in 1999-2000, were compared with those of strains isolated from human cases of yersiniosis during the same period. Methods and Results: The faecal carriage of Y. enterocolitica by cattle, sheep and pigs at slaughter was 6.3, 10.7 and 26.1%, respectively. Yersinia enterocolitica biotype (BT) 1a was the most frequently isolated biotype from livestock (58%) and was the predominant biotype (53%) isolated from human cases over the same period. The main recognized pathogenic Y. enterocolitica biotype isolated from livestock was BT3 (O:5,27) (35% of sheep, 22% of pigs and 4% of cattle) but this biotype was not detected in any of the human isolates investigated. The major pathogenic biotypes of strains isolated from humans were BT3 (O:9) (24%) and BT4 (O:3) (19%) whereas of the veterinary isolates investigated, only pigs (11%) carried BT3 (O:9) strains. Conclusions: Because of significant overlaps in phenotypes of the veterinary and human strains it is not possible to comment on the correlation between host and pathogenicity, especially of biotype 1a. Significance and Impact of the Study: The data suggest that further investigations using methods with greater discriminatory power are required. However the data also suggests that pigs may be the primary reservoir for human pathogenic Y. enterocolitica infection

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis with limited genetic diversity is a common finding in tonsils of fattening pigs

Reprinted with permission from the Journal of Food Protection. Copyright held by the International Association for Food Protection, Des Moines, Iowa, U.S.A

Contamination of carcasses, offals and the environment with yadA-positive Yersinia enterocolitica in a pig slaughterhouse

Reprinted with permission from the Journal of Food Protection. Copyright held by the International Association for Food Protection, Des Moines, Iowa, U.S.A

Pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica O:3 isolated from a hunted wild alpine ibex

Occurrence of Yersinia spp. in wild ruminants was studied and the strains were characterized to get more information on the epidemiology of enteropathogenic Yersinia in the wildlife. In total, faecal samples of 77 red deer, 60 chamois, 55 roe deer and 27 alpine ibex were collected during 3 months of the hunting season in 2011. The most frequently identified species was Y. enterocolitica found in 13%, 10%, 4% and 2% of roe deer, red deer, alpine ibex and chamois, respectively. Interestingly, one Y. enterocolitica O:3 strain, isolated from an alpine ibex, carried the important virulence genes located on the virulence plasmid (yadA and virF) and in the chromosome (ail, hreP, myfA and ystA). Most of the Y. enterocolitica strains belonged to biotype 1A of which 14 were ystB positive. Further studies are needed to clarify the importance of alpine ibex as a reservoir of pathogenic Y. enterocolitic