Imaging of Bubonic Plague Dynamics by In Vivo Tracking of Bioluminescent Yersinia pestis

Yersinia pestis dissemination in a host is usually studied by enumerating bacteria in the tissues of animals sacrificed at different times. This laborious methodology gives only snapshots of the infection, as the infectious process is not synchronized. In this work we used in vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI) to follow Y. pestis dissemination during bubonic plague. We first demonstrated that Y. pestis CO92 transformed with pGEN-luxCDABE stably emitted bioluminescence in vitro and in vivo, while retaining full virulence. The light produced from live animals allowed to delineate the infected organs and correlated with bacterial loads, thus validating the BLI tool. We then showed that the first step of the infectious process is a bacterial multiplication at the injection site (linea alba), followed by a colonization of the draining inguinal lymph node(s), and subsequently of the ipsilateral axillary lymph node through a direct connection between the two nodes. A mild bacteremia and an effective filtering of the blood stream by the liver and spleen probably accounted for the early bacterial blood clearance and the simultaneous development of bacterial foci within these organs. The saturation of the filtering capacity of the spleen and liver subsequently led to terminal septicemia. Our results also indicate that secondary lymphoid tissues are the main targets of Y. pestis multiplication and that colonization of other organs occurs essentially at the terminal phase of the disease. Finally, our analysis reveals that the high variability in the kinetics of infection is attributable to the time the bacteria remain confined at the injection site. However, once Y. pestis has reached the draining lymph nodes, the disease progresses extremely rapidly, leading to the invasion of the entire body within two days and to death of the animals. This highlights the extraordinary capacity of Y. pestis to annihilate the host innate immune response

Patterning Bacterial Communities on Epithelial Cells

Micropatterning of bacteria using aqueous two phase system (ATPS) enables the localized culture and formation of physically separated bacterial communities on human epithelial cell sheets. This method was used to compare the effects of Escherichia coli strain MG1655 and an isogenic invasive counterpart that expresses the invasin (inv) gene from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis on the underlying epithelial cell layer. Large portions of the cell layer beneath the invasive strain were killed or detached while the non-invasive E. coli had no apparent effect on the epithelial cell layer over a 24 h observation period. In addition, simultaneous testing of the localized effects of three different bacterial species; E. coli MG1655, Shigella boydii KACC 10792 and Pseudomonas sp DSM 50906 on an epithelial cell layer is also demonstrated. The paper further shows the ability to use a bacterial predator, Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus HD 100, to selectively remove the E. coli, S. boydii and P. sp communities from this bacteria-patterned epithelial cell layer. Importantly, predation and removal of the P. Sp was critical for maintaining viability of the underlying epithelial cells. Although this paper focuses on a few specific cell types, the technique should be broadly applicable to understand a variety of bacteria-epithelial cell interactionsopen3

Monitoring of Gene Expression in Bacteria during Infections Using an Adaptable Set of Bioluminescent, Fluorescent and Colorigenic Fusion Vectors

A family of versatile promoter-probe plasmids for gene expression analysis was developed based on a modular expression plasmid system (pZ). The vectors contain different replicons with exchangeable antibiotic cassettes to allow compatibility and expression analysis on a low-, midi- and high-copy number basis. Suicide vector variants also permit chromosomal integration of the reporter fusion and stable vector derivatives can be used for in vivo or in situ expression studies under non-selective conditions. Transcriptional and translational fusions to the reporter genes gfpmut3.1, amCyan, dsRed2, luxCDABE, phoA or lacZ can be constructed, and presence of identical multiple cloning sites in the vector system facilitates the interchange of promoters or reporter genes between the plasmids of the series. The promoter of the constitutively expressed gapA gene of Escherichia coli was included to obtain fluorescent and bioluminescent expression constructs. A combination of the plasmids allows simultaneous detection and gene expression analysis in individual bacteria, e.g. in bacterial communities or during mouse infections. To test our vector system, we analyzed and quantified expression of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis virulence genes under laboratory conditions, in association with cells and during the infection process

Injection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Exo Toxins into Host Cells Can Be Modulated by Host Factors at the Level of Translocon Assembly and/or Activity

Pseudomonas aeruginosa type III secretion apparatus exports and translocates four exotoxins into the cytoplasm of the host cell. The translocation requires two hydrophobic bacterial proteins, PopB and PopD, that are found associated with host cell membranes following infection. In this work we examined the influence of host cell elements on exotoxin translocation efficiency. We developed a quantitative flow cytometry based assay of translocation that used protein fusions between either ExoS or ExoY and the ß-lactamase reporter enzyme. In parallel, association of translocon proteins with host plasma membranes was evaluated by immunodetection of PopB/D following sucrose gradient fractionation of membranes. A pro-myelocytic cell line (HL-60) and a pro-monocytic cell line (U937) were found resistant to toxin injection even though PopB/D associated with host cell plasma membranes. Differentiation of these cells to either macrophage- or neutrophil-like cell lines resulted in injection-sensitive phenotype without significantly changing the level of membrane-inserted translocon proteins. As previous in vitro studies have indicated that the lysis of liposomes by PopB and PopD requires both cholesterol and phosphatidyl-serine, we first examined the role of cholesterol in translocation efficiency. Treatment of sensitive HL-60 cells with methyl-ß-cyclodextrine, a cholesterol-depleting agent, resulted in a diminished injection of ExoS-Bla. Moreover, the PopB translocator was found in the membrane fraction, obtained from sucrose-gradient purifications, containing the lipid-raft marker flotillin. Examination of components of signalling pathways influencing the toxin injection was further assayed through a pharmacological approach. A systematic detection of translocon proteins within host membranes showed that, in addition to membrane composition, some general signalling pathways involved in actin polymerization may be critical for the formation of a functional pore. In conclusion, we provide new insights in regulation of translocation process and suggest possible cross-talks between eukaryotic cell and the pathogen at the level of exotoxin translocation

Multifaceted value profiles of forest owner categories in South Sweden: The river helge å catchment as a case study

Forest landscapes provide benefits from a wide range of goods, function and intangible values. But what are different forest owner categories\u27 profiles of economic use and non-use values? This study focuses on the complex forest ownership pattern of the River Helge å catchment including the Kristianstad Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve in southern Sweden. We made 89 telephone interviews with informants representing the four main forest owner categories. Our mapping included consumptive and non-consumptive direct use values, indirect use values, and non-use values such as natural and cultural heritage. While the value profiles of non-industrial forest land owners and municipalities included all value categories, the forest companies focused on wood production, and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency on nature protection. We discuss the challenges of communicating different forest owners\u27 economic value profiles among stakeholders, the need for a broader suite of forest management systems, and fora for collaborative planning. © 2013 The Author(s)

Temporal Expression and Localization Patterns of Variant Surface Antigens in Clinical <em>Plasmodium falciparum</em> Isolates during Erythrocyte Schizogony

<div><p>Avoidance of antibody-mediated immune recognition allows parasites to establish chronic infections and enhances opportunities for transmission. The human malaria parasite <em>Plasmodium falciparum</em> possesses a number of multi-copy gene families, including <em>var</em>, <em>rif</em>, <em>stevor</em> and <em>pfmc-2tm,</em> which encode variant antigens believed to be expressed on the surfaces of infected erythrocytes. However, most studies of these antigens are based on <em>in vitro</em> analyses of culture-adapted isolates, most commonly the laboratory strain 3D7, and thus may not be representative of the unique challenges encountered by <em>P. falciparum</em> in the human host. To investigate the expression of the <em>var</em>, <em>rif-A</em>, <em>rif-B</em>, <em>stevor</em> and <em>pfmc-2tm</em> family genes under conditions that mimic more closely the natural course of infection, <em>ex vivo</em> clinical <em>P. falciparum</em> isolates were analyzed using a novel quantitative real-time PCR approach. Expression patterns in the clinical isolates at various time points during the first intraerythrocytic developmental cycle <em>in vitro</em> were compared to those of strain 3D7. In the clinical isolates, in contrast to strain 3D7, there was a peak of expression of the multi-copy gene families <em>rif-A</em>, <em>stevor</em> and <em>pfmc-2tm</em> at the young ring stage, in addition to the already known expression peak in trophozoites. Furthermore, most of the variant surface antigen families were overexpressed in the clinical isolates relative to 3D7, with the exception of the <em>pfmc-2tm</em> family, expression of which was higher in 3D7 parasites. Immunofluorescence analyses performed in parallel revealed two stage-dependent localization patterns of RIFIN, STEVOR and <em>Pf</em>MC-2TM. Proteins were exported into the infected erythrocyte at the young trophozoite stage, whereas they remained inside the parasite membrane during schizont stage and were subsequently observed in different compartments in the merozoite. These results reveal a complex pattern of expression of <em>P. falciparum</em> multi-copy gene families during clinical progression and are suggestive of diverse functional roles of the respective proteins.</p> </div

Immunoblot analysis of VSA abundance in the clinical isolate #5 and the 3D7 strain.

<p><b>A, B</b>: Isolate #5 (h: time of <i>in vitro</i> cultivation) and 3D7 (hpi: hours post infection) at successive developmental stages were harvested (<b>A</b>), and differences in VSA abundance in the membrane fraction were assessed by immunoblot using α-RIF40, α-RIF44, α-RIF50, α-STEVOR-mix, α-<i>Pf</i>MC-2TM-SC, and α-<i>Pf</i>MC-2TM-CT antisera (<b>B</b>). As expected, RIFIN and STEVOR were present at higher levels in the clinical isolate; in contrast, <i>Pf</i>MC-2TM proteins were quantitatively increased in 3D7 parasites. Differences were most obvious in pigmented parasite stages (trophozoites, schizonts, left), which also exhibited the highest levels of protein during intraerythrocyic development, but upon longer exposure (*), similar results were also observed for ring stage parasites (right). The luminal endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein BiP (HSP70) served as a loading control.</p

Proportion of infected erythrocytes with VSAs exported to host cell compartments in clinical isolates and 3D7 at different developmental stages.

1<p>Time point not determined for isolate #1.</p>2<p>Time point of 44 h for isolate #4.</p><p>hpi, hours post-infection.</p