17 research outputs found

    Credence goods and market power: an econometric study on the Brazilian pharmaceutical industry

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    Bearing in mind the market failures pointed out by the economic literature and following the international empirical evidence, and based on original micro data of the Brazilian pharmaceutical industry in the late 1990s, this article attempts to relate empirically drug prices in Brazil to some explaining variables. We find that, similarly to previous U.S. estimations, leading branded drugs accommodated share growth of the followers, turning towards a more inelastic market segment and raising their prices. On followers, in turn, a fall of the concentration index in a market had ambiguous effects: if due to reduced leader power, followers raised their relative prices; if due to a tougher competition within the fringe, their relative prices tended to go down.<br>No presente artigo procuramos, tendo em mente as imperfeições de mercado apontadas pela literatura e pela experiência internacional, e com base em dados originais da indústria farmacêutica, relacionar empiricamente o preço de medicamentos no Brasil com algumas variáveis explicativas. Encontramos que, consoante com estimações anteriores da experiência norte-americana, os medicamentos líderes no Brasil, antes da lei que instituiu o medicamento genérico, acomodavam o avanço de produtos similares (do mesmo princípio ativo, porém sem o teste de bioequivalência) e se recolhiam a segmentos inelásticos do mercado, elevando seus preços. Os similares, ao contrário, ao perderem mercado, reduziam seus preços em relação ao líder, de modo que uma redução no índice de concentração do mercado total de um princípio ativo tem efeitos ambíguos sobre seus preços, dependendo se a causa é uma queda da participação do líder ou um rearranjo dentre os seguidores

    Optimal commodity taxes for Brazil based on AIDS preferences

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    In this study we calculate optimal commodity taxes for Brazil. Simulations are based on the Almost Ideal Demand System , estimated using Brazilian household data. The trade off between equity and efficiency is taken into account by introducing a government aversion to inequality parameter into a social welfare function, which is maximized subject to a balanced government budget requirement. Our results show that the optimal commodity tax structure is characterized by selective tax rates when the only tax policy instrument available is commodity taxation. We extend the analysis by allowing for a uniform poll payment to be made by the government. In this case tax rates are regressive and poll transfer levels are unreasonably high. When we cap transfers with a binding ceiling the former pattern is restored. Comparing with Siqueira (1998), we have also observed a relative robustness of optimal tax rates to household preferences forms.O presente estudo tem como objetivo calcular a estrutura ótima da tributação sobre o consumo no Brasil. As simulações baseiam-se no sistema de demanda Almost Ideal Demand System estimados com dados da POF/IBGE. O trade off entre eqüidade e eficiência é incorporado no modelo com a introdução de um coeficiente de aversão à desigualdade social na função de bem-estar social, sujeita à restrição de receita do governo. Além da hipótese de que o único instrumento de política tributária disponível seja a tributação sobre o consumo, nosso modelo também admite a concessão de uma transferência uniforme lump sum de renda per capita do governo para todos os agentes econômicos. Os resultados mostram que a estrutura tributária sobre o consumo caracteriza-se pela seletividade das alíquotas, que se torna mais significativa para valores altos do parâmetro de aversão à desigualdade. Este resultado é revertido para uma estrutura tributária regressiva com a introdução de uma transferência uniforme lump sum de renda do governo para todos os agentes no modelo. Quando tetos bastante restritivos são impostos aos valores das transferências, o primeiro resultado é restabelecido. Com relação à forma escolhida da preferência do consumidor, nossos resultados também mostram relativa robustez com os obtidos em Siqueira (1998)

    Aging Alters Daily and Regional Calretinin Neuronal Expression in the Rat Non-image Forming Visual Thalamus

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    Aging affects the overall physiology, including the image-forming and non-image forming visual systems. Among the components of the latter, the thalamic retinorecipient inter-geniculate leaflet (IGL) and ventral lateral geniculate (vLGN) nucleus conveys light information to subcortical regions, adjusting visuomotor, and circadian functions. It is noteworthy that several visual related cells, such as neuronal subpopulations in the IGL and vLGN are neurochemically characterized by the presence of calcium binding proteins. Calretinin (CR), a representative of such proteins, denotes region-specificity in a temporal manner by variable day-night expression. In parallel, age-related brain dysfunction and neurodegeneration are associated with abnormal intracellular concentrations of calcium. Here, we investigated whether daily changes in the number of CR neurons are a feature of the aged IGL and vLGN in rats. To this end, we perfused rats, ranging from 3 to 24 months of age, within distinct phases of the day, namely zeitgeber times (ZTs). Then, we evaluated CR immunolabeling through design-based stereological cell estimation. We observed distinct daily rhythms of CR expression in the IGL and in both the retinorecipient (vLGNe) and non-retinorecipient (vLGNi) portions of the vLGN. In the ZT 6, the middle of the light phase, the CR cells are reduced with aging in the IGL and vLGNe. In the ZT 12, the transition between light to dark, an age-related CR loss was found in all nuclei. While CR expression predominates in specific spatial domains of vLGN, age-related changes appear not to be restricted at particular portions. No alterations were found in the dark/light transition or in the middle of the dark phase, ZTs 0, and 18, respectively. These results are relevant in the understanding of how aging shifts the phenotype of visual related cells at topographically organized channels of visuomotor and circadian processing
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