Cognitive Biases in Human Causal Learning

El objetivo de este trabajo fue la búsqueda de sesgos cognitivos en la inferencia de relaciones causales para descubrir qué procesos psicológicos modulan el aprendizaje causal. A partir del efecto de la frecuencia de juicio, este trabajo presenta investigación consecuente sobre competición entre claves (ensombrecimiento, bloqueo o súper-condicionamiento) para demostrar cómo la fuerza de las creencias previas y la evidencia sobre la covariación de cada causa contribuyen aditivamente en los juicios causales y en la toma de decisiones, siendo su fuerza relativa modulada por la fiabilidad otorgada a cada tipo de información. Nuevos datos muestran también la incapacidad para detectar relaciones causales incidentales preventivas, pero no generativas. Esta “ceguera inatencional” parece deberse a un fallo en la codificación o recuperación de la información. Todos estos datos revelan que una arquitectura cognitiva del aprendizaje causal debe basarse en tres niveles. El primer nivel sería responsable de la codificación de los eventos en cada ensayo. El segundo nivel computaría la nueva evidencia a partir de la información recibida del primer nivel. En el tercer nivel, el individuo debe interpretar e integrar toda esta información con su conocimiento causal previo. En suma, los modelos sobre juicios de causalidad y toma de decisiones normalmente se han centrado en el efecto exclusivo de las “creencias y conocimiento causal” o de la “experiencia directa y covariación” entre causas y efectos. Este trabajo demuestra que ambos tipos de información se requieren e interactúan cuando se trata de explicar la complejidad y flexibilidad que implica el aprendizaje y la inferencia de relaciones causales en humanos.The main aim of this work was to look for cognitive biases in human inference of causal relationships in order to emphasize the psychological processes that modulate causal learning. From the effect of the judgment frequency, this work presents subsequent research on cue competition (overshadowing, blocking, and super-conditioning effects) showing that the strength of prior beliefs and new evidence based upon covariation computation contributes additively to predict causal judgments, whereas the balance between the reliability of both, beliefs and covariation knowledge, modulates their relative weight. New findings also showed “inattentional blindness” for negative or preventative causal relationships but not for positive or generative ones, due to failure in codifying and retrieving the necessary information for its computation. Overall results unveil the need of three hierarchical levels of a whole architecture for human causal learning: the lower one, responsible for codifying the events during the task; the second one, computing the retrieved information; finally, the higher level, integrating this evidence with previous causal knowledge. In summary, whereas current theoretical frameworks on causal inference and decision-making usually focused either on causal beliefs or covariation information, the present work shows how both are required to be able to explain the complexity and flexibility involved in human causal learning

Relationships between Personality Traits and Brain Gray Matter Are Different in Risky and Non-risky Drivers

We would like to thank the support of the Andalusian Regional Government, and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), to the Brain, Behavior, and Health, scientific excellence unit (SC2), ref: SOMM17/6103/UGR. This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (PSI2016-80558-R) awarded to A.Ct. and a predoctoral fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (FPU18/03263) to L.M. We would also like to thank the professional English proofreader, yourenglishlab, for her work.Personality traits such as impulsivity or sensitivity to rewards and punishments have been associated with risky driving behavior, but it is still unclear how brain anatomy is related to these traits as a function of risky driving. In the present study, we explore the neuroanatomical basis of risky driving behavior and how the level of risk-taking influences the relationship between the traits of impulsivity and sensitivity to rewards and punishments and brain gray matter volume. One hundred forty-four participants with different risk-taking tendencies assessed by real-life driving situations underwent MRI. Personality traits were assessed with selfreport measures. We observed that the total gray matter volume varied as a function of risky driving tendencies, with higher risk individuals showing lower gray matter volumes. Similar results were found for volumes of brain areas involved in the reward and cognitive control networks, such as the frontotemporal, parietal, limbic, and cerebellar cortices. We have also shown that sensitivity to reward and punishment and impulsivity are differentially related to gray matter volumes as a function of risky driving tendencies. Highly risky individuals show lower absolute correlations with gray matter volumes than less risk-prone individuals. Taken together, our results show that risky drivers differ in the brain structure of the areas involved in reward processing, cognitive control, and behavioral modulation, which may lead to dysfunctional decision-making and riskier driving behavior.Andalusian Regional GovernmentEuropean Commission PSI2016-80558-RSpanish Government FPU18/03263 SOMM17/6103/UG

Criteria of the peer-review process for publication of experimental and quasi-experimental research in Psychology

Experimental research in Psychology is characterized by ensuring a method that guarantees objectivity, reliability, validity and replication of results. In this theoretical study we have elaborated a set of criteria for the preparation and review of quasiexperimental and experimental research manuscripts, which follows such methodological objective dictates. These criteria are based on a review of structural aspects in experimental research, in the modern theory of psychological theorization, and in the validity theory of scientific research. All these aspects are complemented with those proposed in revisions about empirically-based, and statistically-based peer-review systems. We distinguish between essential, obligatory, and complementary criteria. These criteria are organized according to a measuring tool –the ExperimenCheck system-, including report characteristics, antecedents, theoretical development, design, analysis and interpretation of results, format and bibliographical sources. We also introduce the general guidelines of a reviewing process that fulfils scientific criteria, using the proposed evaluative guideline as the main organizing principle.La investigación experimental en Psicología se rige por un método que garantiza la objetividad, la fiabilidad, la validez y la reproducción de los resultados. En este estudio teórico se proponen un conjunto de criterios para la preparación y revisión de manuscritos de investigación experimental y cuasi-experimental que sigue precisamente tales dictados metodológicos de objetividad. Tales criterios se basan en una revisión de los aspectos estructurales propios de la metodología de investigación experimental y la teoría moderna de teorización psicológica, así como en la teoría de validez. Dichos aspectos se complementaron además con lo que se ha publicado sobre el propio proceso de revisión, tanto desde el punto de vista empírico como estadísticometodológico. Se distingue entre criterios básicos, obligatorios, y criterios complementarios. Los criterios se organizan según el sistema ExperimenCheck, un instrumento de medida que abarca las características del informe, los antecedentes, el desarrollo teórico, el diseño, análisis e interpretación de resultados, formato y fuentes documentales. Se presentan también las directrices generales de un proceso de revisión basado en dicho sistema de evaluación.A investigação experimental em Psicologia rege-se por um método que garante a objectividade, a fidelidade, a validade e a reprodução dos resultados. Neste estudo teórico propõe-se um conjunto de critérios para a preparação e revisão de manuscritos de investigação experimental e quase-experimental que segue precisamente tais critérios metodológicos de objectividade. Tais critérios baseiam-se numa revisão dos aspectos estruturais próprios da metodologia de investigação experimental e a teoria moderna de teorização psicológica, assim como na teoria da validade. Tais aspectos completam o que se publicou sobre o próprio processo de revisão tanto do ponto de vista empírico como estatístico-metodologico. Distingue-se entre critérios básicos, obrigatórios, e critérios complementares. Os critérios organizam-se segundo o sistema Experimen Check, um instrumento de medida que abarca as características do relatório, os antecedentes, o desenvolvimento teórico, o plano, a análise e a interpretação de resultados, formato e fontes documentais. Apresentam-se também as directrizes gerais de um processo de revisão baseado no dito sistema de avaliação

Effectiveness of training in expressing positive emotions, reacting to change and greeting peers after childhood traumatic brain injury: a single-case experimental study

Background: Social cognitive deficits are common after traumatic brain injury (TBI). The participant in this single-case experimental design (SCED) was 7 years old when he sustained a severe TBI. After 2 years in rehabilitation, he continues to show deficits in social cognition. Objective: To determine the effectiveness of three interventions, each aimed at improving a behavior altered by social cognition deficits. These behaviors were: (1) expression of positive emotions, (2) reacting to changes in plans, and (3) greeting classmates. Method: An A-B-A’ design was used for each behavior. In addition, each behavior was targeted with a rehabilitation program applied over 10 sessions. Results: For the first behavior, changes between phases B-A’ (NAP = 0.712) and A-A’ (NAP = 0.864) indicated improvements in the child’s ability to express positive emotions. In the second behavior, changes in the intensity of reactions between phases B and A’ (NAP = 0.815) and A vs. A’ (NAP = 0.834) indicated that the child adapted to changes in a plan and to unexpected situations in a more adaptive way. For the third behavior, changes in the number of greetings between phases A and B (NAP = 0.883) and A vs. A’ (NAP = 0.844) suggested that during the third phase of the study, the participant fully acquired the habit of greeting peers and increased his interactions with others. Conclusion: While the participant showed improvements in all three targeted behaviors, due to the complexity of the third behavior, it is recommended that in future research, the intervention targeting social interactions should be applied over a longer timeframe to ensure that improvements are more stable in the long term.FPU16/03165 grant from the Spanish Ministry of EducationUniversity of Cadiz, Spai

There Is More to Mindfulness Than Emotion Regulation: A Study on Brain Structural Networks

This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (PSI2016-80558-R to ACa); and a postdoctoral contract of the university of Granada (to SB).We would also like to thank the support of the Andalusian Regional Government, and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), to the Brain, Behavior, and Health, scientific excellence unit (SC2), ref: SOMM17/6103/UGR.Dispositional mindfulness and emotion regulation are two psychological constructs closely interrelated, and both appear to improve with the long-term practice of mindfulness meditation. These constructs appear to be related to subcortical, prefrontal, and posterior brain areas involved in emotional processing, cognitive control, self-awareness, and mind wandering. However, no studies have yet discerned the neural basis of dispositional mindfulness that are minimally associated with emotion regulation. In the present study, we use a novel brain structural network analysis approach to study the relationship between structural networks and dispositional mindfulness, measured with two different and widely used instruments [Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)], taking into account the effect of emotion regulation difficulties. We observed a number of different brain regions associated with the different scales and dimensions. The total score of FFMQ and MAAS overlap with the bilateral parahippocampal and fusiform gyri. Additionally, MAAS scores were related to the bilateral hippocampus and the FFMQ total score to the right insula and bilateral amygdala. These results indicate that, depending on the instrument used, the characteristics measured could differ and could also involve different brain systems. However, it seems that brain areas related to emotional reactivity and semantic processing are generally related to Dispositional or trait mindfulness (DM), regardless of the instrument used.Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness PSI2016-80558-Runiversity of Granad

Cancer awareness in older adults: Results from the Spanish Onco-barometer cross-sectional survey

Background: About half of all cancers are diagnosed in adults older than 65, making them the age group at highest risk of developing this disease. Nurses from different specialties can support individuals and communities in the prevention and early detection of cancer and should be aware of the common knowledge gaps and perceived bar riers among older adults. Objectives: The goal of the current research was to investigate personal characteristics, perceived barriers, and be liefs related to cancer awareness in older adults, with a special focus on perceptions about the influence of cancer risk factors, knowledge of cancer symptoms, and anticipated help-seeking. Design: Descriptive cross-sectional study. Participants: Participants were 1213 older adults (≥65 years old) from the representative national Onco barometer survey conducted in 2020 in Spain. Methods: Questions on the perceived influence of cancer risk factors, knowledge of cancer symptoms, and the Span ish version of the Awareness and Beliefs about Cancer (ABC) questionnaire were administered in computer-assisted telephone interviews. Results: Knowledge of cancer risk factors and symptoms was strongly related to personal characteristics and was lim ited among males and older individuals. Respondents from lower socio-economic background recognized fewer can cer symptoms. Having personal or family history of cancer had opposite effects on cancer awareness: It was related to more accurate symptom knowledge but also to lower perceptions about the influence of risk factors and more delayed help-seeking. Anticipated help-seeking times were strongly influenced by perceived barriers to help-seeking and be liefs about cancer. Worry about wasting the doctor's time (48% increase, 95% CI [25%–75%]), about what the doctor might find (21% increase [3%–43%]) and not having enough time to go to the doctor (30% increase [5%–60%]) were related to more delayed help-seeking intentions. In contrast, beliefs that reflected higher perceived seriousness of a potential cancer diagnosis were related to shorter anticipated help-seeking times (19% decrease [5%–33%]). Conclusions: These results suggest that older adults could benefit from interventions informing them about how to re duce their cancer risk and addressing emotional barriers and beliefs associated with help-seeking delays. Nurses can contribute to educating this vulnerable group and are in a unique position to address some barriers to help-seeking. Study registration: Not registered.Cancer Observatory of the Spanish Association against Cancer (Asociacion Espanola contrael Cancer)Cancer Epidemiological Surveillance Subprogram (VICA) of the CIBER of Epidemiology and Public Health, Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, SpainSpanish State Research Agency (MCIN/AEI) JC2019-039691-

Propiedades espaciales del mecanismo atencional inhibitorio

In a series of three experiments it studies a possible spatial specificity of the mechanism of inhibitory attention. Across negative priming paradigm, it examines in a specific way if it exits differences between distract stimulus placed inside the area of attention of the subject and of others placed in the periphery. By means of the utilization of a letter matching task similar to that it was used by Nelly, Lissner and Beck (1990), it obtains priming negative effect only in those distract letter which place out of the area of attention of the subject. The results suggest that the inhibitory system that work in the level of physical and special characteristics can not inhibit the stimulus placed inside the area, for which all of them are forcibly process in a semamic level.En una serie de (tres experimentos se estudia una posible especificidad espacial del mecanismo atencional inhibitorio. A través del paradigma de priming negativo se examina en concreto si existen diferencias entre estímulos distractores situados dentro del foco atencional del sujeto y otros situados en la periferia. Mediante la utilización de una letter-matching task similar a la que emplearon Nelly, Lissner y Beck (1990), se obtiene efecto de priming negativo sólo en aquellas letras distractores que se sitúan fuera del foco de atención del sujeto. Los resultados sugieren que el sistema inhibitorio que actúa a nivel de características físicas y espaciales no puede inhibir los estímulos situados dentro del foco, por lo cual todos ellos son forzosamente procesados a nivel semántico

Electrophysiological correlates of the reverse Stroop effect: Results from a simulated handgun task

This work was supported by the Ramon y Cajal fellowship program from the Spanish State Research Agency (RYC-2015-17483) awarded to LLDS. Additional support was obtained from the Unit of Excellence on Brain, Behavior, and Health (SC2) , funded by the Excellence actions program of the University of Granada. Work by CDP & LLDS is supported by Santander Bank- Joint Center University of Granada-Spanish Army Training and Doctrine Command (grant numbers PINs 2018-15 and 5/2/20 F2F) . The funding organizations had no role in the design or conduct of this research. We are deeply grateful to Dr. Greg Wood (Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK) for sharing the original set of stimuli used in his reverse Stroop handgun task. We thank Dr. Marcelo Augusto Costa Fernandes (Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center, University of Granada) for his help in data processing and analysis. We thank Dr. Michelangelo Cao (Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford) for his comments and suggestions on the manu-script. We also want to thank Dr. J. M. Morales, Ms. P. Gonzalez, and Mr. D. Catalan for their help during data collection and pre-processing.The color-word reverse Stroop (RS) effect still represents an interesting puzzle for cognitive researchers as an interference between incongruent ink colors and the meaning of the words is not always found. Here, we examined whether an unfamiliar and complex visuomotor task would produce a RS effect. Forty inexperienced shooters carried out a simulated shooting task. To test if the RS effect is related to the stimuli processing or to a late processing of the color (early and late time-windows), electroencephalographic global field power (GFP) variations were recorded with a high-impedance system (32 channels configuration in a standard monopolar montage, referenced to FCz and grounded to FPz). The color-word RS effect was reflected in the performance of 32 participants, suggesting that the strength of the association between the target and the specific response requested might be central to the RS interference. This behavioral result was paralleled by GFP modulations in 20 participants. A significant increase of the GFP for the congruent trials (e.g., the word “red” written in red ink) was recorded after stimulus presentation (conflict detection), followed by an increase for the incongruent trials (e.g., the word “red” written in green ink) just before the shooting (conflict resolution). Despite the limitations of the study, such as the inclusion of a low number of channels in the GFP analyses, the results suggest that the RS interference is easily elicited in tasks requiring an unfamiliar response, which supports the strength of association hypothesis. Moreover, as implied by the GFP modulations, the interference might occur early in time, but also in a later stage, closer to the response.Ramon y Cajal fellowship program from the Spanish State Research Agency RYC-2015-17483Unit of Excellence on Brain, Behavior, and Health (SC2) - Excellence actions program of the University of Granada CDPSantander Bank- Joint Center University of Granada-Spanish Army Training and Doctrine Command PINs 2018-15 5/2/20 F2

Relation between habitual sleep duration and depressed mood state: somatic versus cognitive symptoms

The present ex post facto prospective investigation analyses the association between habitual sleep duration and depressed mood state in college students. The sample was composed of 141 healthy students of both sexes, 19 with short sleep pattern (sleeping 6 hours or less per night), 64 with intermediate sleep pattern (sleeping 7-8 hours per night) and 58 with long sleep pattern (sleeping more than 9 hours per night). Depressed mood was evaluated with the Beck´s Depression Inventory (BDI) and the depression subscale of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). The scores for depressed mood state were higher for individuals with short and long sleep pattern than for those with intermediate sleep pattern. The item analysis of specific depression symptoms indicated that short sleepers differ from intermediate sleepers in the somatic symptoms of depressed mood, whereas the differences between long and intermediate sleepers are observed in cognitive aspects. Some explicative hypothesis about the mechanisms that could be mediating relations between sleep duration and depressed mood are discussed. The development of educational initiatives destined to optimise students’ sleep habits may be useful to prevent future depression.La presente investigación ex post facto analiza la relación entre la duración habitual de sueño y el estado de ánimo deprimido. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 141 estudiantes sanos de ambos sexos, 19 con patrón de sueño corto (6 horas de sueño diario o menos), 64 con patrón de sueño intermedio (7-8 horas de sueño diario) y 58 con patrón de sueño largo (más de 9 horas de sueño diario). El ánimo deprimido se evaluó con el Inventario de Depresión de Beck (BDI) y la subescala de depresión del Cuestionario de Salud General (GHQ-28). Los sujetos con patrón de sueño corto y largo mostraban puntuaciones superiores en ánimo deprimido que aquellos con patrón de sueño intermedio. El análisis de cada uno de los ítems de depresión específicos mostró que los sujetos con patrón de sueño corto diferían de los patrones de sueño intermedio en los síntomas somáticos de la depresión, mientras las diferencias entre los sujetos con patrón de sueño largo e intermedio se producían en aspectos cognitivos. Se presentan algunas hipótesis explicativas sobre los mecanismos que pueden estar mediando las relaciones entre duración de sueño y estado de ánimo deprimido. El desarrollo de iniciativas educacionales destinadas a optimizar los hábitos de sueño de los estudiantes puede ser útil para prevenir depresiones futuras.A presente investigação ex post facto analisa a relação entre a duração habitual do sono e o estado de humor deprimido. A amostra foi constituída por 141 estudantes saudáveis de ambos os sexos, 19 com padrão de sono breve (pelo menos 6 horas de sono diário), 64 com padrão de sono intermédio (7-8 horas de sono diário) e 58 com padrão de sono longo (mais de 9 horas de sono diário). O humor deprimido foi avaliado com o inventário de depressão de Beck (BDI) e a subescala de depressão do questionário de saúde geral (GHQ-28). Os sujeitos com padrão de sono breve e longo mostraram pontuações superiores no humor deprimido às daqueles com um padrão de sono intermédio. A análise de cada um dos itens de depressão específicos mostrou que os sujeitos com padrão de sono breve diferiam dos que tinham um padrão de sono intermédio nos sintomas sintomáticos da depressão, enquanto que as diferenças entre os sujeitos com padrão de sono longo e intermédio se produziam em aspectos cognitivos. Apresentam-se algumas hipóteses explicativas sobre os mecanismos que podem estar a mediar as relações entre duração do sono e o humor deprimido. O desenvolvimento de iniciativas educacionais destinadas a optimizar os hábitos de sono dos estudantes pode ser útil para prevenir depressões futuras

Differences between risk perception and risk-taking are related to impulsivity levels

Background Although there is broad agreement that perceived risks determine risk-taking behavior, previous research has shown that this association may not be as straightforward as expected. The main objective of this study was to investigate if the levels of impulsivity can explain part of these controversial findings. Method A total of 1579 participants (Mage = 23.06, from 18 to 60 years; 69.4% women) were assessed for levels of risk perception, risk-taking avoidance, and impulsivity. Results The results showed that while impulsivity was significantly and negatively related to both risk perception and risk-taking avoidance, the relationship with risk-taking avoidance was significantly stronger than with risk perception. The levels of impulsivity predicted risk-taking avoidance even when controlling for risk perception. Conclusions These findings indicate that impulsivity can differentially affect risk perception and risk-taking. We propose that the stronger influence of impulsivity on risk-taking is due to the greater reliance of risk-taking, compared with risk perception, on automatic processes guided by impulses and emotions.This research has been funded by the Regional Ministry of Economy and Knowledge, Junta de Andalucía, to Alberto Megías Robles (UMA18-FEDERJA-13 and EMERGIA20_00056)