Lymphotoxin α revisited: general features and implications in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting synovial joints. Therapies blocking tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) are now routinely used in the management of RA. However, a significant number of patients with RA do not respond or develop resistance to anti-TNF therapies, and the participation of other cytokines in RA pathogenesis has been reported as well. Lymphotoxin alpha (LTα) is the closest homolog to TNFα and has been implicated in inflammation and autoimmunity since its original description in 1968. In spite of that, little is known about the role of LTα in RA or the potential of blocking this cytokine as an alternative therapeutic approach. In this review, we aim to summarize the general features of LTα and what is currently known about its participation in RA

Study of cell response induced by LT alpha, TRAIL and FASL in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts

La polyarthrite rhumatoïde (PR) est une maladie inflammatoire chronique qui touche les articulations synoviales. La PR se caractérise par une expansion pseudo-tumorale des cellules synoviales de types fibroblastiques (FLS) qui envahissent et détruisent les articulations. Le Facteur de Necrose Tumorale (TNF) alpha joue un rôle primordial dans cette pathologie et le blocage de son action constitue une thérapie efficace contre la PR. Il existe néanmoins des patients non-répondeurs aux anti-TNFs ce qui suggére la participation d'autres cytokines dans la PR. La Lymphotoxine (LT) alpha est le plus proche homologue du TNFalpha, mais son rôle dans la PR reste peu étudié et le potentiel thérapeutique de son blocage pour traiter la maladie doit encore être établi. La déplétion des FLS hyperprolifératives constitue une autre stratégie pour le traitement de la PR. L'utilisation des membres de la Famille du TNF, TRAIL et Fas ligand (FasL), a été proposée pour induire la mort cellulaire pa r apoptose des FLS dans les articulations synoviales. Toutefois, ces cytokines sont pleiotropiques et peuvent causer des effets secondaires. Nous avons caractérisé les effets de la LTalpha, de TRAIL et FasL dans les FLS pour mieux comprendre ses rôles dans la PR. Nos résultas montrent que les niveaux sériques de la LTalpha sont augmentés dans la PR comparés aux patients sains ou atteints d'arthrose. Toute comme le TNFalpha, la LTalpha induit la prolifération et l'activation des FLS. Ainsi, l'inhibition simultanée de la LTalpha et du TNFalpha pourrait fournir un avantage thérapeutique dans le cadre des traitements contre la PR. Nous avons par ailleurs démontré que TRAIL est un facteur protecteur en début de la PR mais a un rôle promoteur au cours de la maladie. Le double rôle de TRAIL est corrélé à l'expression de TRAIL récepteur 1. Enfin, nous avons montré que FasL joue un rôle non-apoptotique dans les FLS, en modulant leur prolifération. Pour cette raison, une thérapie basée sur TRAIL ou FasL demande une sensibilisation à l'apoptose des FLS.Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting synovial joints. A hallmark of RA is the pseudo-tumoral expansion of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), which invade and destroy the joint. Blocking of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) alpha is effective to treat RA. However, some patients are nonresponsive to anti-TNF therapies, suggesting the participation of other cytokines in RA. Lymphotoxin (LT) alpha is the closest homologous to TNFalpha, but little is known about its role in RA and therapeutic potential of blocking this cytokine to treat RA. Another strategy to treat RA is the depletion of hyperproliferative FLS. The TNF family members TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and Fas ligand (FasL) have been proposed for targeting FLS in arthritic joints. However, these cytokines are pleiotropic and can thus cause unwanted effects. We aimed to characterize the effects of LTalpha, TRAIL and FasL in RA FLS and better understand their role in the pathog enesis of RA. Our results show that serum levels of LTalpha are increased in RA compared to osteoarthritis and healthy controls and LTalpha induces proliferation and activation of RA FLS to the same extent that TNFalpha. Thus, simultaneous blocking of LTalpha and TNFalpha appears to be of benefit for RA patients. Additionally, we demonstrated that TRAIL could be a protective factor in the initial phase of RA but subsequently has a disease-promoting role. The dual role of TRAIL is correlated to TRAIL receptor 1 expression of RA FLS. Moreover, we showed that FasL induces non-apoptotic effects in RA FLS, such as proliferation. Therefore, a TRAIL or FasL based therapeutic strategy in RA requires sensitization for apoptosis of FLS

Study of cell response induced by LT alpha, TRAIL and FASL in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts

La polyarthrite rhumatoïde (PR) est une maladie inflammatoire chronique qui touche les articulations synoviales. La PR se caractérise par une expansion pseudo-tumorale des cellules synoviales de types fibroblastiques (FLS) qui envahissent et détruisent les articulations. Le Facteur de Necrose Tumorale (TNF) alpha joue un rôle primordial dans cette pathologie et le blocage de son action constitue une thérapie efficace contre la PR. Il existe néanmoins des patients non-répondeurs aux anti-TNFs ce qui suggére la participation d'autres cytokines dans la PR. La Lymphotoxine (LT) alpha est le plus proche homologue du TNFalpha, mais son rôle dans la PR reste peu étudié et le potentiel thérapeutique de son blocage pour traiter la maladie doit encore être établi. La déplétion des FLS hyperprolifératives constitue une autre stratégie pour le traitement de la PR. L'utilisation des membres de la Famille du TNF, TRAIL et Fas ligand (FasL), a été proposée pour induire la mort cellulaire pa r apoptose des FLS dans les articulations synoviales. Toutefois, ces cytokines sont pleiotropiques et peuvent causer des effets secondaires. Nous avons caractérisé les effets de la LTalpha, de TRAIL et FasL dans les FLS pour mieux comprendre ses rôles dans la PR. Nos résultas montrent que les niveaux sériques de la LTalpha sont augmentés dans la PR comparés aux patients sains ou atteints d'arthrose. Toute comme le TNFalpha, la LTalpha induit la prolifération et l'activation des FLS. Ainsi, l'inhibition simultanée de la LTalpha et du TNFalpha pourrait fournir un avantage thérapeutique dans le cadre des traitements contre la PR. Nous avons par ailleurs démontré que TRAIL est un facteur protecteur en début de la PR mais a un rôle promoteur au cours de la maladie. Le double rôle de TRAIL est corrélé à l'expression de TRAIL récepteur 1. Enfin, nous avons montré que FasL joue un rôle non-apoptotique dans les FLS, en modulant leur prolifération. Pour cette raison, une thérapie basée sur TRAIL ou FasL demande une sensibilisation à l'apoptose des FLS.Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting synovial joints. A hallmark of RA is the pseudo-tumoral expansion of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), which invade and destroy the joint. Blocking of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) alpha is effective to treat RA. However, some patients are nonresponsive to anti-TNF therapies, suggesting the participation of other cytokines in RA. Lymphotoxin (LT) alpha is the closest homologous to TNFalpha, but little is known about its role in RA and therapeutic potential of blocking this cytokine to treat RA. Another strategy to treat RA is the depletion of hyperproliferative FLS. The TNF family members TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and Fas ligand (FasL) have been proposed for targeting FLS in arthritic joints. However, these cytokines are pleiotropic and can thus cause unwanted effects. We aimed to characterize the effects of LTalpha, TRAIL and FasL in RA FLS and better understand their role in the pathog enesis of RA. Our results show that serum levels of LTalpha are increased in RA compared to osteoarthritis and healthy controls and LTalpha induces proliferation and activation of RA FLS to the same extent that TNFalpha. Thus, simultaneous blocking of LTalpha and TNFalpha appears to be of benefit for RA patients. Additionally, we demonstrated that TRAIL could be a protective factor in the initial phase of RA but subsequently has a disease-promoting role. The dual role of TRAIL is correlated to TRAIL receptor 1 expression of RA FLS. Moreover, we showed that FasL induces non-apoptotic effects in RA FLS, such as proliferation. Therefore, a TRAIL or FasL based therapeutic strategy in RA requires sensitization for apoptosis of FLS.MONTPELLIER-BU Médecine UPM (341722108) / SudocSudocFranceF

Targeting the Fas/FasL system in Rheumatoid Arthritis therapy: Promising or risky?

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting synovial joints. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α is a key component of RA pathogenesis and blocking this cytokine is the most common strategy to treat the disease. Though TNFα blockers are very efficient, one third of the RA patients are unresponsive or present side effects. Therefore, the development of novel therapeutic approaches is required. RA pathogenesis is characterized by the hyperplasia of the synovium, closely associated to the pseudo-tumoral expansion of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), which invade and destroy the joint structure. Hence, depletion of RA FLS has been proposed as an alternative therapeutic strategy. The TNF family member Fas ligand (FasL) was reported to trigger apoptosis in FLS of arthritic joints by binding to its receptor Fas and therefore suggested as a promising candidate for targeting the hyperplastic synovial tissue. However, this cytokine is pleiotropic and recent data from the literature indicate that Fas activation might have a disease-promoting role in RA by promoting cell proliferation. Therefore, a FasL-based therapy for RA requires careful evaluation before being applied. In this review we aim to overview what is known about the apoptotic and non-apoptotic effects of Fas/FasL system and discuss its relevance in R

Distinct Effects of Soluble and Membrane-Bound Fas Ligand on Fibroblast-like Synoviocytes From Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients

Injection of agonistic anti-Fas antibody has been shown to decrease disease symptoms in mouse models of arthritis. Additionally, membrane-bound FasL (mFasL) has been shown to induce cell death in fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. However, levels of soluble FasL (sFasL) are increased in the joints of RA patients and have been associated with disease severity, indicating that mFasL and sFasL play opposing roles in RA. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of FasL on RA FLS responses. The responses of FLS from RA and osteoarthritis (OA) patients to soluble and oligomeric FasL, the latter mimicking mFasL, were analyzed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and proliferation assays, using 3 different FasL variants. The signaling pathways that trigger FasL responses were characterized by Western blotting. We found that mFasL and sFasL have distinct roles in RA FLS. Crosslinked FasL preferentially induced apoptosis, whereas sFasL stimulated proliferation. Moreover, sFasL activated several signaling pathways in RA FLS, such as ERK-1/2, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, caspase 8, and JNK, with a prominent role of JNK, since only the blockade of this pathway rendered FLS more susceptible to FasL-induced apoptosis. Crosslinked FasL induced apoptosis in FLS from OA patients, but sFasL failed to stimulate their proliferation. Our findings suggest that sFasL is a disease promoter in RA, a finding consistent with previous reports describing a tumor-promoting role of FasL. Therefore, blocking of sFasL could be a therapeutic strategy for R

Mechanisms and clinical relevance of TRAIL-triggered responses in the synovial fibroblasts of patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Results of studies in mice suggest a protective role for TRAIL in arthritis. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of TRAIL in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In the present study, we compared RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) that were resistant or sensitive to TRAIL-induced apoptosis and the expression of TRAIL receptors in these cells, and also investigated the clinical features of the patients from whom the FLS were derived. Furthermore, we evaluated the levels of TRAIL and its soluble decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG) in patients with RA, patients with osteoarthritis (OA), and patients with spondylarthritis (SpA). Sensitivity to TRAIL-induced apoptosis varied in FLS from different patients, and the severity of disease in patients with RA was inversely correlated with the susceptibility of their FLS to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. TRAIL-sensitive cells expressed significantly lower levels of TRAILR-1, and silencing of TRAILR-1 increased TRAIL-induced apoptosis in RA FLS. TRAIL levels were elevated in the arthritic joints of patients with established RA, and TRAIL levels in the synovial fluid of these patients were elevated compared with levels in the synovial fluid of patients with OA or SpA. At baseline, a low OPG-to-TRAIL ratio in the sera of patients with early RA was associated with a better evolution of disease activity, but high serum levels of TRAIL at followup were associated with joint damage. These findings suggest that TRAIL has a dual role in RA, and that the resistance of RA FLS to TRAIL-induced apoptosis is associated with a disease-promoting activity of TRAIL in R

In Silico Identification of Novel APRIL Peptide Antagonists and Binding Insights by Molecular Modeling and Immunosorbent Assays

The "A proliferation inducing ligand" protein (APRIL) is a cytokine over-expressed in many transformed and tumoral cells acting onto two distinct receptors of the Tumoral Necrosis Factor B cell maturation antigen (BCMA) and the transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI). We herein describe, through a detailed computational approach, the molecular interactions between TACI and its ligands APRIL and another structurally similar protein called B-cell activating factor (BAFF) by means of molecular dynamics. Dynamical analysis suggests R84 and D85 residues from TACI as possible mutation candidates, yielding increased affinity between TACI and APRIL. The association of computational simulations, site directed mutagenesis and peptide design could be a powerful tool, driving to better in vitro experiments. Our results contribute to the elucidation of APRIL signaling and help clarify the effects of blocking interaction between APRIL and its receptors through the use of particular peptide

Immunoendocrinology of the Thymus in Chagas Disease

During immune response to infectious agents, the host develops an inflammatory response which could fail to eliminate the pathogen or may become dysregulated. In this case, the ongoing response acquires a new status and turns out to be detrimental. The same elements taking part in the establishment and regulation of the inflammatory response (cytokines, chemokines, regulatory T cells and counteracting compounds like glucocorticoids) may also mediate harmful effects. Thymic disturbances seen during Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) infection fit well with this conceptual framework. After infection, this organ suffers a severe atrophy due to apoptosis-induced thymocyte exhaustion, mainly affecting the immature double-positive (DP) CD4+CD8+ population. Thymus cellularity depletion, which occurs in the absence of main immunological mediators involved in anti-T. cruzi defense, seems to be linked to a systemic cytokine/hormonal imbalance, involving a dysregulated increase in Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and corticosterone hormone levels. Additionally, we have found an anomalous exit of potentially autoimmune DP cells to the periphery, in parallel to a shrinkage in the compartment of natural regulatory T cells. In this context, our data clearly point to the view that the thymus is a target organ of T. cruzi infection. Preserved thymus may be essential for the development of an effective immune response against T. cruzi, but this organ is severely affected by a dysregulated circuit of proinflammatory cytokines and glucocorticoids. Also, the alterations observed in the DP population might have potential implications for the autoimmune component of human Chagas disease. Copyright (C) 2011 S. Karger AG, BaselCONICET, Argentina[PIP-CONICET 0789]FONCYT, Argentina[PICT 2008-0980]SeCyT-UNR, Argentina[MED 244]SeCyT-UNR, Argentina[MED 245]CNPq, BrazilFaperj, BrazilOswaldo Cruz Foundation, Brazi

T. cruzi infection interferes with thymic regulatory T cell homeostasis

The dynamics of regulatory T cells in the course of Trypanosoma cruzi infection is still debated. We previously demonstrated that acute murine T. cruzi infection results in an impaired peripheral CD4+Foxp3+ T cell differentiation due to the acquisition of an abnormal Th1-like phenotype and altered functional features, negatively impacting on the course of infection. Moreover, T. cruzi infection induces an intense thymic atrophy. As known, the thymus is the primary lymphoid organ in which thymic-derived regulatory T cells, known as tTregs, differentiate. Considering the lack of available data about the effect of T. cruzi infection upon tTregs, we examined tTreg dynamics during the course of disease. We confirmed that T. cruzi infection induces a marked loss of tTreg cell number associated to cell precursor exhaustion, partially avoided by glucocorticoid ablation- and IL-2 survival factor depletion. At the same time, tTregs accumulate within the CD4 single-positive compartment, exhibiting an increased Ki-67/Annexin V ratio compared to controls. Moreover, tTregs enhance after the infection the expression of signature markers (CD25, CD62L and GITR) and they also display alterations in the expression of migration-associated molecules (α chains of VLAs and chemokine receptors) such as functional fibronectin-driven migratory disturbance. Taken together, we provide data demonstrating profound alterations in tTreg compartment during acute murine T. cruzi infection, denoting that their homeostasis is significantly affected. The evident loss of tTreg cell number may compromise the composition of tTreg peripheral pool, and such sustained alteration over time may be partially related to the immune dysregulation observed in the chronic phase of the disease.Fil: González, Florencia Belén. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; ArgentinaFil: Calmon-Hamaty, Flavia. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz; BrasilFil: Nô Seara Cordeiro, Synara. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz; BrasilFil: Fernandez Bussy, Rodrigo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; ArgentinaFil: Spinelli, Silvana Virginia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; ArgentinaFil: D'attilio, Luciano David. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; ArgentinaFil: Bottasso, Oscar Adelmo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; ArgentinaFil: Savino, Wilson. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz; BrasilFil: Cotta de Almeida, Vinícius. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz; BrasilFil: Villar, Silvina Raquel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; ArgentinaFil: Perez, Ana Rosa. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Rosario. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario. Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Instituto de Inmunología Clinica y Experimental de Rosario; Argentin