Personal and psychosocial predictors of doping use in physical activity settings: a meta-analysis.

Background: There is a growing body of empirical evidence on demographic and psychosocial predictors of doping intentions and behaviors utilizing a variety of variables and conceptual models. However, to date there has been no attempt to quantitatively synthesize the available evidence and identify the strongest predictors of doping. Objectives: Using meta-analysis, we aimed to (i) determine effect sizes of psychological (e.g. attitudes) and social-contextual factors (e.g. social norms), and demographic (e.g. sex and age) variables on doping intentions and use; (ii) examine variables that moderate such effect sizes; and (iii) test a path analysis model, using the meta-analyzed effect sizes, based on variables from the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Data Sources: Articles were identified from online databases, by contacting experts in the field, and searching the World Anti-Doping Agency website. Study Eligibility Criteria and Participants: Studies that measured doping behaviors and/or doping intentions, and at least one other demographic, psychological, or social-contextual variable were included. We identified 63 independent datasets. Study Appraisal and Synthesis Method: Study information was extracted by using predefined data fields and taking into account study quality indicators. A random effects meta-analysis was carried out, correcting for sampling and measurement error, and identifying moderator variables. Path analysis was conducted on a subset of studies that utilized the TPB. Results: Use of legal supplements, perceived social norms, and positive attitudes towards doping were the strongest positive correlates of doping intentions and behaviors. In contrast, morality and self-efficacy to refrain from doping had the strongest negative association with doping intentions and behaviors. Furthermore, path analysis suggested that attitudes, perceived norms, and self-efficacy to refrain from doping predicted intentions to dope and, indirectly, doping behaviors. Limitations: Various meta-analyzed effect sizes were based on a small number of studies, which were correlational in nature. This is a limitation of the extant literature. Conclusions: This review identifies a number of important correlates of doping intention and behavior, many of which were measured via self-reports and were drawn from an extended TPB framework. Future research might benefit from embracing other conceptual models of doping behavior and adopting experimental methodologies that will test some of the identified correlates in an effort to develop targeted anti-doping policies and programs

The relation between student motivation and student grades in physical education: A 3-year investigation

Enhancing students’ academic engagement is the key element of the educational process; hence, research in this area has focused on understanding the mechanisms that can lead to increased academic engagement. The present study investigated the relation between motivation and grades in physical education (PE) employing a 3-yearlongitudinal design. Three hundred fifty-four Greek high school students participated in the study. Students completed measures of motivation to participate in PE on six occasions; namely, at the start and the end of the school year in the first, second, and third year of junior high school. Students’ PE grades were also recorded at these time points. The results of the multilevel growth models indicated that students’ PE grades increased over the 3years and students had better PE grades at the end of each year than at the beginning of the subsequent year. In general, students and classes with higher levels of controlling motivation achieved lower PE grades, whereas higher levels of autonomous motivation were associated with higher PE grades. These findings provide new insight on the associations between class- and individual-level motivation with objectively assessed achievement in PE

Equal Prioritisation Does Not Yield Lower Levels of Participation in Physical Activities than Higher Prioritisation

Objectives: This study examined whether individuals who assigned equal priority to physical activity and an alternative activity exhibited lower levels of participation in physical activities than individuals who assigned higher priority to physical activity than an alternative activity. In addition, we examined whether a measure of prioritisation derived from an algebraic difference index provided a rigorous test of prioritisation effects. Design: We employed a two-wave prospective design that aimed to predict physical activity participation. Method: Prioritisation, intentions and perceptions of control were measured at the first wave of data collection. After five weeks, we administered follow-up measures of behavioural conflict and physical activity participation. Results: A hierarchical regression analysis showed that although the algebraic difference index was positively associated with measures of physical activity participation, equal prioritisation did not yield lower levels of physical activity participation than high prioritisation. Conclusions: Findings suggest that equal prioritisation is not a less optimal self-regulatory strategy than high prioritisation in the domain of physical activity. Regression coefficients associated with algebraic difference indexes should be interpreted with caution and consider analyses that examine effects of component measures of prioritisation on physical activity participation

Versión portuguesa de la Escala de Estado de Ansiedad en Educación Física: Propiedades psicométricas y su asociación con el sexo, edad y actividad física extracurricular

El objetivo de este estudio fue la traducción y adaptación cultural de la escala PESAS en portugués, evaluar sus propiedades psicométricas, e investigar los efectos del género, la edad y la actividad física extracurricular, en las diferentes dimensiones de PESAS (ansiedad somática, procesos cognitivos y preocupación). La muestra fue de 496 estudiantes (221 varones, 275 mujeres) con edades comprendidas entre 13 y 21 años (M = 15,71, SD = 1,34). El análisis factorial confirmatorio confirmó una adecuada validez factorial de la estructura multidimensional original de tres factores (procesos cognitivos, ansiedad somática y preocupaciones/miedos). Las estudiantes reportaron niveles más altos en las dimensiones de la ansiedad, en comparación con los varones. Los practicantes de actividad física extracurricular revelaron niveles más bajos de los procesos cognitivos y preocupaciones/miedos. La edad correlacionó negativamente con los procesos cognitivos y la ansiedad somática. Estos resultados apoyan el uso de la versión portuguesa de la escala PESAS y proporcionan información adicional sobre el estado de ansiedad en la educación física escolar

Self-determined motivation in sport predicts anti-doping motivation and intention: A perspective from the trans-contextual model

Objectives: Motivation in sport has been frequently identified as a key factor of young athletes’ intention of doping in sport, but there has not been any attempt in scrutinizing the motivational mechanism involved. The present study applied the trans-contextual model of motivation to explain the relationship between motivation in a sport context and motivation and the social-cognitive factors (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intention) from the theory of planned behavior (TPB) in an anti-doping context. Design: A cross-sectional survey was conducted. Methods: Questionnaire data was collected from 410 elite and sub-elite young athletes in Australia (Mean age [17.7 ± 3.9 yr], 55.4% male, Years in sport [9.1 ± 3.2]). We measured the key model variables of study in relation to sport motivation (Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire), and the motivation (adapted version of the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire) and social cognitive patterns (the theory of planned behavior questionnaire) of doping avoidance. The data was analyzed by variance-based structural equation modeling with bootstrapping of 999 replications. Results: The goodness-of-fit of the hypothesized model was acceptable. The bootstrapped parameter estimates revealed that autonomous motivation and amotivation in sport were positively associated with the corresponding types of motivation for the avoidance of doping. Autonomous motivation, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control in doping avoidance fully mediated the relationship between autonomous motivation in sport and intention for doping avoidance. Conclusions: The findings support the tenets of the trans-contextual model, and explain how motivation in sport is related to athletes’ motivation and intention with respect to anti-doping behaviors

Transferring motivation from educational to extramural contexts: A review of the trans-contextual model

A key question for educators is whether teaching styles, methods, and practices not only foster motivation toward, and persistence with, learning activities in the classroom but also in contexts outside of school (Ciani et al. 2010). There is a wealth of evidence in the social psychological literature applied to educational contexts that has indicated that teaching styles and other motivational strategies adopted by social agents like teachers and educators lead to adaptive outcomes within the school context. For example, adopting democratic teaching styles (Tomasetto 2004), fostering mastery oriented motivational climates (Barkoukis et al. 2008), and providing autonomy support (Reeve 2002) are strategies that have been utilised by social agents in educational contexts to promote increased motivation among pupils and students. Overall, the support offered by teachers in the classroom has been shown to have direct effects on pupils’ emotional and motivational responses (e.g. Covington and Dray 2002). Furthermore, the adoption of autonomy-supportive strategies has been associated with numerous adaptive outcomes such as academic achievement (Deci et al. 1991), perceived competence (Harter 1985), deep learning of concepts (Lau et al.2008), and selection of tasks of optimal challenge (Murphy and Thomas 2008). There is also some evidence that such strategies also foster desirable outcomes beyond the classroom, such as engagement in extra-curricular activities (Tomasetto 2004) and studying behaviour (Kolic-Vehovec et al. 2008). This indicates that social agents’ behaviours in educational settings may motivate students to engage in behaviours and activities outside of school that are adaptive in terms of learning and skill development. Such influences likely fulfil a key goal of education to influence educational activities beyond the classroom.In addition, motivating students outside of the classroom will meet educational aims to promote increased transformative experiences (Pugh et al. 2010) and inquisitive behaviours (Yoon 2009) among pupils that assist in the development of flexible, critical, and analytic thinking skills that are generalizable and transferable. It must, however, be stressed that little is known of the processes by which teacher behaviours in educational contexts impact on students motivation and behaviour within the school and, most importantly, outside school. The aim of the present review is to provide an overview of a recently developed motivational model that outlines the processes by which perceptions of social agents’ behaviours that support motivation and learning affect motivation to engage in educational activities in both the classroom and extramural contexts. The model is based on the integration of leading social psychological and motivational theories and not only identifies the important factors and processes involved in trans-contextual motivation, but also provides an impetus for the development of interventions to promote motivation for learning activities in both educational and extramural contexts. After outlining the conceptual and theoretical bases of the model, we review a series of prospective and intervention studies from our laboratory that provides evidence to support its core trans-contextual premises. We also outline how the model serves as a novel basis for educational interventions to enhance motivation among pupils in educational and extramural contexts and the potential of the model to be applied to interventions in diverse educational contexts to promote general educational aims of fostering adaptive outcomes in students outside the classroom

Qualitative Analysis of the Factors Associated with Whistleblowing Intentions among Athletes from Six European Countries

Although whistleblowing is thought to represent an effective mechanism for detecting and uncovering doping in sport, it has yet to become a widely adopted practice. Understanding the factors that encourage or discourage whistleblowing is of vital importance for the promotion of this practice and the development of pedagogical material to enhance the likelihood of whistleblowing. The current study employed a qualitative methodology to explore the personal and organisational factors that underpin intentions to blow the whistle or that may lead to engagement in whistleblowing behaviours in sport. Thirty-three competitive athletes across a range of sports took part in a semi-structured interview which sought to explore what they would do should they encounter a doping scenario. Content analysis revealed that whistleblowing is a dynamic process characterised by the interaction of a range of personal and organisational factors in determining the intention to report PED use. These factors included moral reasoning, a desire to keep the matter "in-house", perceived personal costs, institutional attitudes to doping, and social support. Analysis revealed a number of 'intervening events' (Ajzen, 1991), including a perceived lack of organisational protection (e.g., ethical leadership) within some sporting sub-cultures, which present an important obstacle to whistleblowing. The intention to report doping was underpinned by a "fairness loyalty trade-off" which involved athletes choosing to adhere to either fairness norms (which relate to a sense that all people and groups are treated equally) or loyalty norms (which reflect preferential treatment towards an in-group) when deciding whether they would blow the whistle. The promotion of fairness norms that emphasise a group's collective interests might encourage athletes to view whistleblowing as a means of increasing group cohesiveness and effectiveness and thereby increase the likelihood of this practice