The Principles of the Consumer Right Protection in Electronic Trade: A Comparative Law Analysis

This paper investigates the specifics of electronic trade and the issues of protecting the rights of online-consumers, considers their rights and obligations, since we all face a radically new phenomenon in the sphere of trade – an unprecedented boom of electronic trade (e-commerce), based on the use of the Internet for concluding transactions and operations in the systems of wholesale and retail trade. The means of electronic communication provide broad opportunities for direct contacts between individuals from different countries. The development of electronic communications poses new tasks before the system of international private law, and one of them is the protection of the consumer rights, when conducting electronic trade. The main goal of this research is to explore the contemporary state of electronic trade worldwide and to outline the principles of the online consumer protection. Writing this paper, the following scientific methods were employed: the method of collecting and examining individual facts, of generalizing, of abstract scientific conceptualization, the methods of discovering the general rule. As a result of the analysis conducted, we can present a list of the basic principles of protecting the rights of the online consumers – the principle of the right to return the goods bought via the Internet; the right to address complaints, when buying goods via the Internet; the principle of recognition of online contracts; the principle of providing effective protection; the principle of protecting the personal data of the online consumers. The paper suggests a definition of electronic trade by the authors. We conclude that it is necessary to devise an efficient structure for the judicial system, as well as the legislation that would be really applicable, in the implementation of the consumer right protection in electronic trade. Keywords: buyers; business operators; electronic trade, principles; transaction. JEL Classifications: D18, L8

Estado legal de los contratos inteligentes: características, papel, significado

This article using critical analysis discusses the legal status of smart contracts, their features and characteristics, and the possibility of introducing this category into the legal field. The main goal of the study is to determine the legal status of smart contracts. The study concludes that a smart contract is a program code based on blockchain technology, which, by legal characteristics, is a legally significant message recorded in a language (artificial language) and sealed with an electronic digital signature of each of the parties (or certified with a special key). It is proved that the multilateral interactions implemented through smart contracts can reduce the costs of operations and control them, increase the speed of operations and reduce the risks associated with dishonest actions of the parties, minimize or completely exclude intermediaries from the transaction; therefore, legislation should provide for the possibility of using smart contracts along with existing contracts.Este artículo mediante el criterio metodológico del análisis crítico examina el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, sus particularidades, características y la posibilidad de introducir esta categoría en el campo legal. El objetivo principal del estudio es determinar el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, y la posibilidad de aplicación en el derecho civil. Durante el estudio se llegó a la conclusión de que el contrato inteligente es un código de programa, basado en la tecnología blockchain, la cual por sus características legales es un mensaje legalmente significativo escrito en un idioma (lenguaje artificial) y respaldado por la firma digital electrónica de cada una de las partes. Se ha demostrado como las interacciones multilaterales realizadas a través de contratos inteligentes permiten reducir los costos de la realización y control de las operaciones, aumentar la velocidad de las operaciones y reducir los riesgos asociados con las acciones desleales de las partes

Legal status of smart contracts: features, role, significance

Este artículo mediante el criterio metodológico del análisis crítico examina el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, sus particularidades, características y la posibilidad de introducir esta categoría en el campo legal. El objetivo principal del estudio es determinar el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, y la posibilidad de aplicación en el derecho civil. Durante el estudio se llegó a la conclusión de que el contrato inteligente es un código de programa, basado en la tecnología blockchain, la cual por sus características legales es un mensaje legalmente significativo escrito en un idioma (lenguaje artificial) y respaldado por la firma digital electrónica de cada una de las partes. Se ha demostrado como las interacciones multilaterales realizadas a través de contratos inteligentes permiten reducir los costos de la realización y control de las operaciones, aumentar la velocidad de las operaciones y reducir los riesgos asociados con las acciones desleales de las partes.This article using critical analysis discusses the legal status of smart contracts, their features and characteristics, and the possibility of introducing this category into the legal field. The main goal of the study is to determine the legal status of smart contracts. The study concludes that a smart contract is a program code based on blockchain technology, which, by legal characteristics, is a le-gally significant message recorded in a language (artificial language) and sealed with an electronic digital signature of each of the parties (or certified with a special key). It is proved that the multi-lateral interactions implemented through smart contracts can reduce the costs of operations and control them, increase the speed of operations and reduce the risks associated with dishonest actions of the parties, minimize or completely exclude intermediaries from the transaction; therefore, legislation should provide for the possibility of us-ing smart contracts along with existing contracts

El estado legal de los tokens y su herencia

This article considers the legal status of tokens, their specifics and distinctive features, as well as the possibility of inheriting this digital asset. The study aims at analyzing the legal nature and classification of tokens, as well as the specifics of their inheritance. While conducting this research, it has been used the methods of collecting and studying singularities, generalization, scientific abstrac- tion, cognition of objective laws, objectivity, specificity and pluralism. It has been concluded that a token is an entry in the transaction block registry (blockchain) or other distributed information systems, which certifies that the token owner is entitled to civil law protections and/or is a cryptocurrency. It has been proved that tokens by their legal nature are digital units of accounting in the participating interest shares of entrepreneurial projects and authorized capitals of any company, digital price analogues of uncertificated securities and other objects of civil law. It has been developed a classification of tokens and emphasized the need to create an electronic data warehouse that contains access codes for these digital assets. After the testator’s death, these codes can be given to the heir by testament or by law in case the testator did not draw up the corresponding testament during their life. These conclusions and suggestions will allow to legally qualify tokens and resolve inheritance issues in this area.Este artículo analiza el estado legal de los tokens, sus características específicas y distintivas, así como la posibilidad de herencia de este activo digital. El objetivo del estudio es analizar la naturaleza legal y la clasificación de los tokens, así como las especialidades de herencia. En esta investigación, se han utilizado los métodos de recopilación y estudio de sin- gularidades, generalización, abstracción científica, cognición de leyes objetivas, objetividad, especificidad y pluralismo. En el estudio se ha concluido que el token es una entrada en el registro de bloques de transacciones (blockchain), otro sistema de información distribuida que verifica que el propietario del token tiene derechos sobre objetos de derechos civiles y (o) es una criptomoneda. Se ha demostrado que los tokens, por su naturaleza legal, son unidad del precio digital en las acciones de individuos en proyectos empresariales, así como en el capital autorizado de la empresa: un análogo del precio digital de valores no certificados; análogo del precio digital de otros objetos de derechos civiles. Se ha propuesto una clasificación de tokens y se ha argumentado la necesidad de crear un repositorio electrónico contenido códigos del acceso para activos digitales, después de la muerte del testador, estos códigos pueden presentarse a los herederos por testamento o ley, si el testador no ha hecho las disposiciones testamentarias correspondientes durante su vida. Estas conclusiones y sugerencias ayudarán a resolver en la práctica los problemas de calificación legal del token y resolver problemas de herencia en esta área

The legal problems of forced migration: a comparative and legal analysis illustrated by the European Union countries and Russia

The study based on the comparative and legal analysis illustrated by the European Union countries and Russia is performed in this article for the first time, Russia has experienced a migration crisis at the close of the 20th century with the collapse of the Soviet Union and has the experience on the settlement of the uncontrolled flow of the refugees, that can be used by the European countries. The purpose of this study is to consider the legal problems of the forced migrants and to propose the possible technologies to regulate the migration processes and to reform the legal framework in the field of migration policy of the countries, experiencing currently the uncontrolled inflow of the refugees. The case-study method was used in this study to develop the models of the different situations, allowing to analyze the legal implications of the forced migration in Europe and to develop the best practical solution in the context of the problem. The comparative analysis method was used to review the practice of the legal regulation of the forced migration in Europe, in the US and in Russia. The study highlights the negative effects of the migration crisis in Europe, including the risk of secession of Europe; the growth of the terrorist threat; the public safety destabilization; the strengthening of the public opposition forces, advocating for the interests of the Europeans, the European identity change. The author’s classification of the refugees, which has the theoretical and practical significance, able to assist the application of the basic legal actions, depending on the category of the forced migrants, is proposed. The Russian migration policy experience allows to determine the main trends in the activities of the EU countries to prevent the negative consequences of the uncontrolled migration from the countries of the Middle East: a partnership based on the principle of “positive conditionality” is required, the priority of the national interests, the legislative enshrinement of the minimum compensation payable to the forced migrants and the amplification of the refugee status acquisition mode in the EU countries, it is required to control the external and the internal borders and to depart the migrants back to their homeland

El estado legal de los tokens y su herencia

This article considers the legal status of tokens, their specifics and distinctive features, as well as the possibility of inheriting this digital asset. The study aims at analyzing the legal nature and classification of tokens, as well as the specifics of their inheritance. While conducting this research, it has been used the methods of collecting and studying singularities, generalization, scientific abstraction, cognition of objective laws, objectivity, specificity and pluralism. It has been concluded that a token is an entry in the transaction block registry (blockchain) or other distributed information systems, which certifies that the token owner is entitled to civil law protections and/or is a cryptocurrency. It has been proved that tokens by their legal nature are digital units of accounting in the participating interest shares of entrepreneurial projects and authorized capitals of any company, digital price analogues of uncertificated securities and other objects of civil law. It has been developed a classification of tokens and emphasized the need to create an electronic data warehouse that contains access codes for these digital assets. After the testator’s death, these codes can be given to the heir by testament or by law in case the testator did not draw up the corresponding testament during their life. These conclusions and suggestions will allow to legally qualify tokens and resolve inheritance issues in this area.Este artículo analiza el estado legal de los tokens, sus características específicas y distintivas, así como la posibilidad de herencia de este activo digital. El objetivo del estudio es analizar la naturaleza legal y la clasificación de los tokens, así como las especialidades de herencia. En esta investigación, se han utilizado los métodos de recopilación y estudio de singularidades, generalización, abstracción científica, cognición de leyes objetivas, objetividad, especificidad y pluralismo. En el estudio se ha concluido que el token es una entrada en el registro de bloques de transacciones (blockchain), otro sistema de información distribuida que verifica que el propietario del token tiene derechos sobre objetos de derechos civiles y (o) es una criptomoneda. Se ha demostrado que los tokens, por su naturaleza legal, son unidad del precio digital en las acciones de individuos en proyectos empresariales, así como en el capital autorizado de la empresa: un análogo del precio digital de valores no certificados; análogo del precio digital de otros objetos de derechos civiles. Se ha propuesto una clasificación de tokens y se ha argumentado la necesidad de crear un repositorio electrónico contenido códigos del acceso para activos digitales, después de la muerte del testador, estos códigos pueden presentarse a los herederos por testamento o ley, si el testador no ha hecho las disposiciones testamentarias correspondientes durante su vida. Estas conclusiones y sugerencias ayudarán a resolver en la práctica los problemas de calificación legal del token y resolver problemas de herencia en esta área

Perspectivas de desarrollo de la regulación legal de las plataformas digitales

The study considers the prospects for the legal regulation of public and private digital platforms. Digital platforms have replaced linear businesses and changed economic principles. The transition to digital technologies in the economy, business, and society substantiates the need for their legal regulation. The study aims at considering the legal status of public and private digital platforms, developing a new conceptual framework, determining the key features of digital platforms, and analyzing the prospects for developing legal regulation in this area. The paper compared management contexts in the public and commercial sectors. With the help of the generalization method, criteria for a new classification of digital platforms were proposed. The article used such methods as analysis, synthesis, deduction, and induction. The study represents a new definition of digital platforms, classifies them, and concludes that the introduction of special regulation of public and private digital platforms might require preliminary approbation, for example, in the form of an experimental legal regime. To ensure the comprehensive regulation of the activities of digital platforms, it is necessary to adopt international concepts that would allow creating uniform terms and principles. At the same time, regulation should consider the specifics of the existing regulation. On the one hand, it will be based on the dispositive method; on the other hand, it will be built over the imperative method.El estudio analizó las perspectivas para la regulación legal de las plataformas digitales estatales y privadas. Las plataformas digitales han sustituido el modelo de negocio lineal y han cambiado los principios económicos. La transición a la tecnología digital en la economía, los negocios y la esfera social, genera la necesidad de su regulación legal. El objetivo del estudio es examinar el estado legal de las plataformas digitales estatales y privadas, proponer un aparato conceptual, identificar las características clave de las plataformas digitales, y analizar las perspectivas para el desarrollo de la regulación legal en esta área. En el trabajo se utilizaron los métodos de análisis comparativo de los contextos de gestión en los sectores estatal y comercial, a través del método de generalización se propuso un criterio para la nueva tipificación de plataformas digitales, se utilizaron además, métodos de análisis, síntesis, deducción e inducción. El estudio propone una definición de autor de las plataformas digitales, una clasificación de las plataformas digitales, y concluye que la introducción de una nueva regulación especial de las plataformas digitales estatales y privadas, puede requerir la aprobación previa de esta regulación, por ejemplo, en el formato de un régimen legal experimental. Para la regulación integrada de las actividades de las plataformas digitales, es conveniente adoptar conceptos internacionales que permitan crear términos y principios uniformes. Al mismo tiempo, la regulación debe tener en cuenta las características de la regulación existente de ciertas áreas. En un caso, se basaría en un método dispositivo, en otro caso, en un método imperativo

Transboundary Succession of Business: Problems Related to Practice

The article considers civil aspects of optimizing business succession related to various national public orders for the purpose of defining the most efficient solutions. Some conflicting issues of the substantial law applied to succession were researched taking into account the fact that every state has its own international private law that determines the boundaries of applying foreign law. These issues are extremely important in case of conflicts between national public orders that have their own views on regulating transboundary succession of business. The goal of the research is to find the ways to overcome difficulties that arise when exercising succession rights in case of transboundary succession of enterprises and their branches. Scientific novelty of the research lies in revealing a number of urgent problems on the basis of the comprehensive approach to studying and analyzing business succession complicated by a foreign element taking into account the existing scientific research results. Special methods of the theoretically legal science were used during the research. The principle conclusion made in this article is as follows: in case of transboundary succession of business it must be succeeded as a unit in spite of the differences of legal systems of European countries. Herewith, international conventions that regulate succession legal relationship must contain these recommendations. In addition, in case of owning business in several countries, for the purpose of optimizing succession, it is recommended to apply the procedure of estate planning. Keywords: succession, successor, inheritance, devolution, public order. JEL Classifications: F23; F42; F51; K4

Estado legal de los contratos inteligentes: características, papel, significado

This article using critical analysis discusses the legal status of smart contracts, their features and characteristics, and the possibility of introducing this category into the legal field. The main goal of the study is to determine the legal status of smart contracts. The study concludes that a smart contract is a program code based on blockchain technology, which, by legal characteristics, is a legally significant message recorded in a language (artificial language) and sealed with an electronic digital signature of each of the parties (or certified with a special key). It is proved that the multilateral interactions implemented through smart contracts can reduce the costs of operations and control them, increase the speed of operations and reduce the risks associated with dishonest actions of the parties, minimize or completely exclude intermediaries from the transaction; therefore, legislation should provide for the possibility of using smart contracts along with existing contracts.Este artículo mediante el criterio metodológico del análisis crítico examina el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, sus particularidades, características y la posibilidad de introducir esta categoría en el campo legal. El objetivo principal del estudio es determinar el estado legal de los contratos inteligentes, y la posibilidad de aplicación en el derecho civil. Durante el estudio se llegó a la conclusión de que el contrato inteligente es un código de programa, basado en la tecnología blockchain, la cual por sus características legales es un mensaje legalmente significativo escrito en un idioma (lenguaje artificial) y respaldado por la firma digital electrónica de cada una de las partes. Se ha demostrado como las interacciones multilaterales realizadas a través de contratos inteligentes permiten reducir los costos de la realización y control de las operaciones, aumentar la velocidad de las operaciones y reducir los riesgos asociados con las acciones desleales de las partes

The legal status of tokens and their inheritance

This article considers the legal status of tokens, their specifics and distinctive features, as well as the possibility of inheriting this digital asset. The study aims at analyzing the legal nature and classification of tokens, as well as the specifics of their inheritance. While conducting this research, it has been used the methods of collecting and studying singularities, generalization, scientific abstraction, cognition of objective laws, objectivity, specificity and pluralism. It has been concluded that a token is an entry in the transaction block registry (blockchain) or other distributed information systems, which certifies that the token owner is entitled to civil law protections and/or is a cryptocurrency. It has been proved that tokens by their legal nature are digital units of accounting in the participating interest shares of entrepreneurial projects and authorized capitals of any company, digital price analogues of uncertificated securities and other objects of civil law. It has been developed a classification of tokens and emphasized the need to create an electronic data warehouse that contains access codes for these digital assets. After the testator’s death, these codes can be given to the heir by testament or by law in case the testator did not draw up the corresponding testament during their life. These conclusions and suggestions will allow to legally qualify tokens and resolve inheritance issues in this area.Este artículo analiza el estado legal de los tokens, sus características específicas y distintivas, así como la posibilidad de herencia de este activo digital. El objetivo del estudio es analizar la naturaleza legal y la clasificación de los tokens, así como las especialidades de herencia. En esta investigación, se han utilizado los métodos de recopilación y estudio de singularidades, generalización, abstracción científica, cognición de leyes objetivas, objetividad, especificidad y pluralismo. En el estudio se ha concluido que el token es una entrada en el registro de bloques de transacciones (blockchain), otro sistema de información distribuida que verifica que el propietario del token tiene derechos sobre objetos de derechos civiles y (o) es una criptomoneda. Se ha demostrado que los tokens, por su naturaleza legal, son unidad del precio digital en las acciones de individuos en proyectos empresariales, así como en el capital autorizado de la empresa: un análogo del precio digital de valores no certificados; análogo del precio digital de otros objetos de derechos civiles. Se ha propuesto una clasificación de tokens y se ha argumentado la necesidad de crear un repositorio electrónico contenido códigos del acceso para activos digitales, después de la muerte del testador, estos códigos pueden presentarse a los herederos por testamento o ley, si el testador no ha hecho las disposiciones testamentarias correspondientes durante su vida. Estas conclusiones y sugerencias ayudarán a resolver en la práctica los problemas de calificación legal del token y resolver problemas de herencia en esta área